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GRAMMAR

The book that teaches you how to teach yourself

English Grammar And How To Use It
Grammar
Robby Lou

Detailed explanation in the Indonesian language
A self-study and self-explanatory reference book for all learners of English.

Buku ini diperuntukan bagi seluruh pembelajar bahasa Inggris

  • Memuat semua pengetahuan grammar yang diperlukan bagi siswa elemntary, intermediate, serta advanced
  • Memberikan tuntunan bagaimana memecahkan persoalan tat bahasa Inggris secara mandiri
  • Topik disusun berdasarkan kadar kesulitan dan tingkat prioritas yang harus dipelajari
  • Penjelasan dalam bahasa Indonesia sehingga siswa dapat memahami setiap topik dengan baik
  • Dapat digunakan untuk belajar mandiri bagi semua siswa dewasa

Click one of the topics below to see its content

1.

THE ADVERB 'EVER'

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  • A.

    EVER DALAM KALIMAT NEGATIF

    Contoh:

    (a) Don't you ever come again!
      (Jangan pernah kamu datang lagi!)
    (b) No one has ever seen her since.
      (Tak seorang pun pernah melihat dia sejak itu.)
    (c) Nothing ever makes him upset.
      (Tak ada yang pernah membuat dia kesal.)
  • B.

    EVER DALAM KALIMAT TANYA

     Contoh:

    (a) Do you ever go to Yogyakarta? (the simple present tense)          
      (Pernahkah Anda pergi ke Yogyakarta?)  

    (b) Are you ever hungry?    (the simple present tense)     
      (Pernahkah Anda lapar?)  

    (c) Have you ever met her?      (the present perfect tense)      
      (Pernahkah Anda bertemu dia?)  

    (d) Have you ever been to Bali? (the present perfect tense.)
      (Pernahkah Anda ke Bali?)  

     Kita dapat menjawab kalimat di atas dengan:

    (a) No, Never (Tidak, tidak pernah).
    (b) Yes, usually (Ya, biasanya).
    (c) Yes, always (Ya, selalu).
    (d) Yes, sometimes (Ya, kadang-kadang).
    (e) Yes, but seldom (Ya, tetapi jarang).
    (f) Yes, but rarely (Ya, tetapi jarang).
    (g) Yes, but not often (Ya, tetapi tidak sering).

    Kalimat (a) Do you ever go to Yogyakarta? dapat dijawab dengan: Yes, I often do (Ya, sering), dan kalimat (b) Are you ever hungry? dapat dijawab dengan Yes, I always am (Ya, selalu). 

  • C.

    EVER DALAM KALIMAT YANG MENYATAKAN KERAGUAN ATAU KONDISI

    Contoh:

    (a) If you ever do it again, I will punish you. 
      (Jika kamu melakukannya lagi, saya akan menghukummu.)

    (b) If you ever say that again, he will not speak to you again. 
      (Jika kamu mengatakan itu lagi, dia tidak akan berbicara denganmu lagi.)

    (c) Don’t you ever wish you had everything?
      (Jangan pernah berharap kamu memiliki segalanya.)

    (d) If you are ever in Jakarta, come and see me.
      (Jika kamu ada di Jakarta kapan saja, datang dan temui aku.)
  • D.

    EVER DIGUNAKAN UNTUK PENEKANAN

    ‘ever’ ditempatkan setelah kata as, than, the comparative form dan the superlative form dari expressions of comparison.
    Contoh: 

    (a) He swam as fast as ever (he could).
      (Dia berenang secepat yang dia bisa.)

    (b) He swam faster than ever.
      (Dia berenang lebih cepat dari yang dia bisa.)

    (c) She likes him more than ever.
      (Dia menyukainya lebih dari sebelumnya.)

    (d)  It’s the longest bridge ever built.
      (Ini adalah jembatan terpanjang yang pernah dibangun.)

    (e) His head grows ever bigger.
      (Kepalanya tumbuh bertambah besar.)
  • E.

    EVER SO + ADJECTIVE, EVER SUCH + NOUN
    (INFORMAL BRITISH ENGLISH)

    ‘ever so’ + adjective dan ever such + noun dapat juga mempunyai arti very.
    Contoh:

    (a) He is ever so kind. (He is very kind)
    (b)  It’s ever such a good movie. (It’s a very good movie)

    (1)

    ‘ever’ jarang digunakan dalam jawaban positif. Kalau ditanya Have you ever been to Bali? Kita menjawab Yes, I have atau No, never.
    (2) ‘never ever’ sama dengan never (tidak pernah).

    (3)

    ‘ever after’ mempunyai arti always (after that).
    (a) The king and the queen lived happily ever after.
      (Raja dan ratu hidup bahagia selamanya.)
    (b) They loved each other ever after.
      (Mereka saling mencintai selamanya.)
    (c) His story is popular as ever.
      (Ceritanya sangat disukai seperti sebelumnya.)
    (d) The teacher, ever (always) an enthusiast, is trying to find a new method of teaching.

    (4)

    ‘Did you ever’ mengandung arti keterkejutan atau ketidakpercayaan jika digunakan sendirian. ‘Did your ever’ tidak memerlukan jawaban jika digunakan sebagai bagian dari pertanyaan, dan penulisannya menggunakan tanda seru di akhir kalimat.
    Contoh:
    (a) Wash your own clothes! - Did you ever!
      (Cuci pakaianmu sendiri! - Memangnya kamu pernah!
    (b) Did you ever tell me!
      (Memangnya kamu pernah memberitahu saya!)
    (5) ‘hardly ever’ mempunyai arti almost never (hampir tidak pernah)
      → He hardly ever smokes. (Dia hampir tidak pernah merokok.)
    (6) ‘ever since’ (sejak) 
      → I have liked this ever since I was a child.
    (7) ‘I don’t ever’ (tidak pernah) 
      → I don’t ever want to see you again.
    (8) ‘ever before’ (pernah sebelumnya) 
      → Have you ever seen something like this before?
    (9) ‘ever’ mempunyai arti always
      → evergreen trees, her ever-closed eyes, an ever-increasing interest rate
2.

THE ADVERBS: QUITE, NOT QUITE, RATHER

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  • A.

    QUITE

    ‘quite’ digunakan dengan kata sifat (adjective), kata keterangan (adverb) dan kata kerja (verb). Kata ‘quite’ berkonotasi positif.

    (1) ‘quite’ mempunyai arti not very, fairly (cukup), more or less.

      Contoh:
    (a) quite good/ big/ small/ warm/ interesting/ attractive/ nice
      (Cukup/ baik/ besar/ kecil/ hangat/ menarik/ menarik/ bagus)
    (b) I quite like/enjoy it.
      (Saya cukup menyukainya/menikmatinya)
    (c)  I talked to her quite a long time.
      (Saya berbicara dengan dia cukup lama.)

    (2) ‘quite’ juga mempunyai arti completely, absolutely, perfectly, very.
      Contoh:
    (a) He is quite happy/ healthy/ sad/ sick/ ready.
      (Dia sangat bahagia/ sehat/ sedih/ sakit/ siap.)
    (b) I can finish it quite fast/ quickly/ well.
      (Saya bisa menyelesaikannya dengan sangat cepat/ baik.)
    (c) I don’t quite know what to talk about.
      (Saya betul-betul tidak tahu apa yang harus dibicarakan.)
    (d) I quite agree with you. (Saya sangat setuju denganmu.)
    (e) It’s quite all right with me. (Hal ini sangat baik bagiku.)
    (f) I am quite ready/right/sure. (Saya sangat siap/benar/yakin.)

    (3) ‘quite’ dengan arti completely/absolutely digunakan untuk penekanan dan tidak digunakan dalam kalimat negatif dengan kata sifat berikut:
      Contoh:
    (a) It’s quite amazing/ extraordinary/ fascinating/ delicious/ spectacular/ incredible.
      (Ini sangat menakjubkan/ luar biasa/ mempesona/ enak/ spektakuler/ luar biasa.)
    (b) It is quite full/ empty/ perfect/ enough.
      (Ini sangat penuh/ kosong/ sempurna/ cukup sekali.)
    (c) She performed quite brilliantly. (dengan adverb)
      (Dia tampil dengan sangat baik.)

    (1) 

    ‘quite’ dengan arti completely digunakan dengan kata sifat: amazing, certain, clear, comfortable, different, extraordinary, friendly, good, happy, impossible, incredible, obvious, ordinary, ready, right, safe, sure, surprising, true, unnecessary, wrong.

    (2)

    Dalam bahasa Inggris Amerika, quite nice berarti very nice, sedangkan dalam bahasa Inggris British, quite nice berarti fairly nice.

    (3) Untuk menyatakan suatu persetujuan, untuk memuji seseorang atau sesuatu, kita bisa menggunakan really, bukan quite.
      Contoh:
    (a) It is really nice of you to come over. (Anda sangat baik mau datang ke sini.)
    (b) It was really interesting. (Hal itu sungguh/sangat menarik.)
    (4) Jika quite digunakan dengan non-gradable adjectives dan adverbs, quite mempunyai arti completely. ‘non-gradable adjectives’ atau absolute quality adalah kata sifat yang kita tidak dapat mengatakan more or less.
      contoh non-gradable adjective atau absolute quality: awful, asleep, awake, brilliant, certain, colossal, dead, empty, enough, exhausted, full, impossible, marvelous, massive, new, perfect, ready, right, superb, terrible, unique, wrong
    (5) ‘gradable adjectives’ adalah kata sifat yang kita dapat mengatakan more or less. Contoh gradable adjectives: cheap, cold, enthusiastic, expensive, fast, unhappy, old, pleased, small, tired, young
  • B.

    QUITE + A/AN + NOUN PHRASE

    ‘quite’ + a/an + Noun Phrase digunakan untuk menunjukkan suatu penghargaan karena suatu nilai yang dianggap di atas rata-rata.

    (1) ‘quite’ digunakan dengan kombinasi kata sifat + kata benda tunggal yang bisa dihitung (singular countable noun).
      Contoh:
    quite a good book, quite an unforgettable experience, quite a young man. Kita tidak mengatakan: quite good books, quite unforgettable experiences

    (2) ‘quite’ digunakan dengan kata benda tunggal yang bisa dihitung (singular countable noun) tanpa kata sifat. quite mempunyai arti unsually (luar biasa)
      Contoh:
    quite a change, quite a beauty, quite a party, quite a story, quite a success, quite a surprise, quite a swimmer, quite a girl, quite a woman

    (3) ‘quite a few/a lot (of)’ ‘quite a few’ (a considerable number, a lot, many) mempunyai arti yang positif dan hampir sama dengan quite a lot (of) (a considerable amount of).
      Contoh:
    (a) There are quite a few/a lot of people here.
    (b) We have sold quite a lot of cars.
    (c) They drank quite a lot of beer.

    (4) ‘quite’ digunakan juga dengan the dalam British English.    
      Contoh:
    (a) He is quite the most attractive woman I have ever met.
    (b) She is going quite the wrong way.
  • C.

    NOT QUITE

    'not quite' adalah sebuah idiom. 'idiom' adalah sekumpulan kata yang artinya tidak jelas jika kita hanya mempelajari arti dari kata pembentuknya secara sendiri-sendiri tetapi harus mempelajarinya secara keseluruhan sebagai satu kesatuan arti.

    (1) 'not quite' berarti not completely, not entirely, not exactly.
      Contoh:
    (a) I don't quite know what he is talking about.
      (Saya betul-betul tidak mengetahui apa yang dia bicarakan.)
    (b) don't quite understand it.
      (Saya betul-betul tidak mengerti.)
    (c) It was not quite as simple as I expected.
      (Hal itu betul-betul tidak sesederhana seperti yang saya harapkan.)
    (d) That's not quite the size that I want.
      (Itu betul-betul bukanlah ukuran yang tepat yang saya mau.)

    (2) 'not quite' dapat berarti almost, slightly less (than).
      Contoh:
    (a) The story is not quite like that.
      (Cerita itu hampir seperti itu.)
    (b) Did you invite 100 people? Not quite that many.
      (Apakah Anda mengundang 100 orang? Hampir sebanyak itu.)
  • D.

    RATHER

    ‘rather’ digunakan dengan kata sifat (adjectives), kata keterangan (adverbs) dan kata kerja (verbs). Kata rather lebih banyak berkonotasi negatif.

    (1) ‘rather’ berarti fairly, slightly (agak).
      Contoh:
    (a) It’s rather cold/hot/difficult/complicated/stupid.
    (b) He is rather crazy/lazy/annoyed.
    (c) He hurt himself rather badly.
    (e) It’s rather too big/small/tight. (dengan too)
    (f) You walk rather too quickly. (dengan too)
    (g) The restaurant is rather more expensive than the others. (dengan comparative)
    (h) His health is rather worse now. (dengan comparative)

    (2) ‘rather’ mempunyai arti seperti quite, yaitu to a moderate extent, a little. ‘rather’ ditempatkan di depan kata kerja yang berhubungan dengan perasaan dan pikiran (enjoy, hope, like, resent, surprise, suspect, think).
      Contoh:
    (a) She rather enjoys staying at home.
    (b) I rather hope she can come.
    (c) In fact, he rather likes it.
    (d) He rather resented having to do that.
    (e) It rather surprised me.
    (f) I rather suspect that he stole the money.
    (g) I rather think we are going to be late.

    (3) ‘rather’ digunakan dengan kata depan (preposisi) like.
      Contoh: She is/looks rather like her mother.

    (4) ‘rather’, jika digunakan dengan kata yang berkonotasi positif, berarti sesuatu yang luar biasa (extraordinarily/unusually atau more than usual).   
      Contoh:
    (a) She is rather smart/attractive/nice.
    (b) It is rather good, warm.
    (c) They played rather well/fast.
  • E.

    RATHER + A/AN + NOUN PHRASE, A RATHER NOUN PHRASE

    (a) RATHER + A/AN + NOUN PHRASE (countable)
      rather a pity, rather a disappointment, rather a shame, rather a fool, rather a good idea, rather an interesting story, rather a pretty girl

    (b) A/AN + RATHER + NOUN PHRASE
      a rather interesting story, a rather good idea, a rather pretty girl
    (a) ‘rather’ tidak digunakan dengan kata benda jamak tanpa kata sifat. Kita tidak dapat mengatakan They are rather students.
    (b) Kita dapat menggunakan the di depan rather.
      Contoh: The rather good film we have seen.
  • F.

    WOULD RATHER ... THAN

    ‘would rather’ disingkat ’d rather mempunyai arti would prefer to. Kita menggunakan or untuk menggantikan than dalam pertanyaan.

    Contoh:

    (a) Would you rather walk or take a taxi? I’d rather walk.
    (b) She would rather work in an office than stay at home.
    (c) They would rather die than give up.
  • G.

    WOULD RATHER + SUBJECT + THE PAST FORM

    Contoh:

    (a)

    Do you mind if I borrow your pen? I would rather you didn’t.
    (b) I would rather you went to bed early.  

     

3.

MID-POSITON ADVERBS IN SEQUENCE WITH VERBS

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  • PREFACE

    Pada dasarnya adverb yang digunakan untuk menerangkan kata kerja sebaiknya ditempatkan sedekat mungkin dengan kata kerja yang diterangkan. Posisi adverbs ini tergantung juga pada pembicara yang ingin menekankan main verb atau auxiliary verbs. Jika yang ditekankan adalah auxiliary verb, maka adverb ditempatkan di depan auxiliary verb.

  • A.

    KATA KERJA UTAMA TANPA KATA KERJA BANTU
    (MAIN VERBS WITH NO AUXILIARY VERBS)

    Kata keterangan (adverb) ditempatkan di depan kata kerja utama (main verb).

    Contoh:

    (a) The teacher carefully checked his students' homework.
      (Guru itu dengan hati-hati memeriksa pekerjaan rumah siswanya.)
    (b) We clearly understand you.
      (Kami dengan jelas mengerti Anda.)
    (c) They always seriously inspect the goods.
      (Mereka selalu dengan serius memeriksa barang dagangan itu.)
    (d) They very much like/dislike watching TV.
      Kata kerja yang dapat digunakan dengan very much adalah kata kerja yang berhubungan dengan perasaan seperti admire, agree, appreciate, doubt, enjoy, hate, hope, regret, want. Khusus untuk kata kerja like dan dislike kita harus menggunakan adverb 'very much'.
  • B.

    KATA KERJA UTAMA DENGAN SATU KATA KERJA BANTU
    (MAIN VERBS WITH ONE AUXILIARY VERB)

    Kata keterangan (adverb) ditempatkan di depan kata kerja utama (main verb) dan sesudah kata kerja bantu (auxiliary verb).

    Contoh:

    (a) They were recently engaged.
      (Mereka baru-baru ini bertunangan.)
    (b) The mother has softly told her son to be quiet.
      (Ibu itu telah dengan halus menyuruh putranya untuk diam.)
    (c) They will soon go home.
      (Mereka akan segera pulang.)
  • C.

    KATA KERJA UTAMA DENGAN LEBIH DARI SATU KATA KERJA BANTU (MAIN VERBS WITH MORE THAN ONE AUXILIARY VERB

    Kata keterangan (adverb) biasanya ditempatkan di depan kata kerja utama (main verb) walaupun kata keterangan tersebut dapat juga ditempatkan setelah kata kerja bantu (auxiliary verb) yang pertama.

    Contoh:

    (a)

     The matter will be carefully / will carefully be investigated by the police.

      (Masalah itu akan dengan hati-hati diperiksa oleh polisi.)
    (b) The patient has been thoroughly / has thoroughly been examined by the doctor.
      (Pasien itu telah dengan menyeluruh diperiksa oleh dokter.)
    (c) The students have been nervously / have nervously been doing the exam.
      (Siswa telah dengan gugup mengerjakan ujian.)
  • D.

    KATA KERJA UTAMA DENGAN LEBIH DARI SATU KATA KERJA BANTU DAN lebih dari satu KATA KETERANGAN (MAIN VERB WITH MORE THAN ONE AUXILIARY VERB AND more than one ADVERB)

    Kedua kata keterangan (adverbs) dipisahkan oleh kata kerja bantu (auxiliary verbs).

    Contoh:

    (a) The machine will certainly be seriously inspected.
      (Mesin itu pasti akan diperiksa dengan serius.)
    (b) They have always been well taken care of.
      (Mereka selalu dijaga dengan baik.)
    (c) They will now be wholeheartedly be doing it.
      (Mereka sekarang akan dengan sepenuh hati mengerjakannya.) 

    Dalam American English, mid-position adverb ini sering kali ditempatkan di depan the auxiliary verb, sedangkan dalam British English setelah the auxiliary verb.

    British English American English
    (a) It will probably rain. It probably will rain.
    (b) They have often visited us. They have often visited us.
    (c) It has long been understood. It long has been understood.
  • E.

    ADVERB’ YANG MENEKANKAN ‘AUXILIARY VERB’

    ‘adverb’ yang menekankan auxiliary verb ditempatkan di depan auxiliary verb tersebut. Jika tidak, adverb ditempatkan setelah auxiliary verb.

    Contoh:

    (a) She certainly has done it. (She has certainly done it.)
    (b) I really am sorry. (I am really sorry.)
  • F.

    ‘ADVERB’ DENGAN ‘MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS: USED TO, HAVE TO’

    Posisi adverbs dapat ditempatkan sebelum dan sesudah modal auxiliary verbs:

    Contoh:

    (a) She sometimes can be bored.
      She can sometimes be bored.
    (b) I always have to see the doctor.
      I have always to see the doctor.
      I have to always see the doctor.
    (c) He always used to go camping.
      He used always to go camping.
      He used to always go camping.
  • G.

    POSISI ‘NOT’ SETELAH ATAU SEBELUM ‘ADVERB’ DI TENGAH KALIMAT

    (1) ‘not’ mendahului adverb lainnya
      Contoh:
    (a) He doesn’t completely know what’s going on.
    (b) She will not be immediately arrested.
    (c) He didn’t purposely do it.
    (2) ‘not’ didahului oleh adverb lainnya
      Contoh:
    (a) He completely doesn’t know what’s going on.
    (b) She will immediately not be arrested.
    (c) He purposely didn’t do it.
    (3) ‘not’ mendahului atau didahului adverb
      Contoh:
    (a) He is not usually early.
    (b) He is usually not early.
    (c) He didn’t completely understand your explanation.
    (d) He completely didn’t understand your explanation.
    (e) I do not often have a stomach-ache.
    (f) I often do not have a stomach-ache.
4.

THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS: WILL, WOULD, SHALL

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  • A.

    WILL (AKAN, MAU, BERSEDIA), WON’T(NEGATIF)

    (1) ‘will’ mempunyai arti akan (future) dan digunakan untuk menunjukkan perkiraan masa depan.
      Contoh:
    (a) How long will you be staying in Jakarta?
    (b) I will go to England next week.    

    (2) ‘will’ mempunyai arti mungkin (likely) dan digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang mungkin dan diharapkan terjadi pada saat sekarang.
      Contoh:
    (a) They will be home by this time.
    (b) That will be him now!

    (3) ‘will’ mempunyai arti maukah (request) dan digunakan untuk membuat permintaan dalam kalimat pertanyaan.
      Contoh:
    (a) Will you take me home?
    (b) Will you have lunch with me?

    (4) ‘will’ mempunyai arti harap (order) dan digunakan untuk membuat perintah.
      Contoh:
    (a) Will you turn off the light!
    (b) Will you be silent!
    (c) You will stop this minute!

    (5) ‘will’ mempunyai arti bersedia (willing) dan digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa seseorang siap melakukan sesuatu sedangkan won’t berarti menolak atau tidak bersedia melakukan sesuatu.
      Contoh:
    (a) I will drop by whenever I have time.
    (b) I won’t do it.

    (6) ‘will’ mempunyai arti akan selalu (always) dan digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kebenaran.
      Contoh:
    (a) Water will boil at 100° Centigrade.
    (b) Oil will float on water.

    (7) ‘will’ mempunyai arti biasanya (present habits/always) dan digunakan untuk menyatakan kebiasaan sekarang.
      Contoh:
    (a) He will never listen when you talk to him.
    (b) He will watch TV for hours.

    (8) ‘will’ mempunyai arti akan selalu (bother) digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang dikerjakan seseorang itu mengganggu.
      Contoh:
    (a) He will spit on the ground.
    (b) She will tell me the same thing again and again.

    (9) ‘will’ mempunyai arti tidak akan (not working) dan digunakan dalam bentuk negatif untuk menyatakan bahwa sesuatu yang biasanya terjadi tidak terjadi.
      Contoh:
    (a) The door won’t open.
    (b) The cap won’t come off no matter how hard I have tried.

    (10) ‘will’ digunakan untuk mengumumkan keputusan (announcement).
      Contoh:
    (a) We will buy the shoes.
    (b) I think I will do it.

    (11) ‘will’ digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu tekad (determination).
      Contoh:
    (a) I won’t drink any more.
    (b) I will quit smoking.

    (12) ‘will’ digunakan untuk menyatakan ancaman dan janji (threats and promises).
      Contoh:
    (a) I will make you pay for this.
    (b) You will be sorry for this.
    (c) I will call you tonight.

    ‘will’ digunakan untuk menyatakan apa yang kita pikirkan akan terjadi tanpa ada tanda-tanda sesuatu akan terjadi. Jika ada tanda-tanda sesuatu akan terjadi, gunakan be going to.
    Contoh:

    (a) Look! He is going to fall.
    (b) I think he will fall.
  • B.

    WOULD (akan, mau, dapat, bisa) Wouldn’t (negatif)

    (1) ‘would’ mempunyai arti akan (future in the past) dan digunakan sebagai the past form dari will. ‘would’ digunakan dalam kalimat tak langsung (indirect speech).
      Contoh:
    (a) He said that he would come over for lunch.
      (Dia mengatakan dia akan datang untuk makan siang.)
    (b) He asked me if I would go with him.
      (Dia bertanya apakah saya akan pergi dengannya.)

    Dalam kalimat tak langsung, would tidak mengalami perubahan:
    ‘Would you like some coffee?’ ‘He asked if I would like some coffee.’

    (2) ‘would’ mempunyai arti akan dan digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu keadaan yang dibayangkan akan terjadi. (possible).
      Contoh:
    (a) She would look pretty in this dress.
      (Dia akan tampak cantik dalam pakaian ini.)
    (b) It would be a pity if you missed the film on TV.
      (Hal itu akan sayang sekali kalau engkau tidak menonton film itu di TV.)
    (c) That’s what she would do. (Itu adalah apa yang mungkin dia lakukan.)

    (3) ‘would’ mempunyai arti akan dan digunakan dalam kalimat utama dari if conditional clause yang menyatakan suatu kejadian akan terjadi jika kejadian lain terjadi terlebih dahulu.
      Contoh:
    (a) I would have said ‘hello’ to her if I had seen her.
      (Saya akan mengucapkan ‘helo’ kepada dia seandainya saya melihatnya.)
    (b) He would have employed me if he hadn’t had enough employees.
      (Dia akan mempekerjakan saya seandainya dia belum mempunyai cukup pegawai.)

    (4) ‘would’ mempunyai arti memberi nasehat (advise) dan digunakan dalam if clause dalam konstruksi ‘if I were you’.
      Contoh:
    (a) If I were you, I would invite her.
      (Seandainya saya adalah Anda, saya akan mengundang dia.)
    (b) If I were you, I would marry her.
      (Seandainya saya adalah Anda, saya akan menikahi dia.)

    (5) ‘would’ mempunyai arti berharap seandainya dan digunakan untuk menyatakan harapan seseorang akan terjadinya sesuatu yang masih mungkin terjadi saat sekarang atau di masa yang akan datang (wish sentences).
      Contoh:
    (a) I wish that she would stay a little more.
      (Saya berharap dia mau tinggal sedikit lebih lama.)
    (b) I wish that he would study harder.
      (Saya berharap dia mau belajar lebih keras.)

    (6) ‘would’ digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa seseorang itu tidak ingin atau menolak melakukan sesuatu (intention).
      Contoh:
    (a) He wouldn’t do it although I had explained to him how important it was.
      (Dia tidak mau melakukannya walaupun saya telah menjelaskan kepadany betapa pentingnya hal itu.)
    (b) She wouldn’t listen no matter how hard I tried.
      (Dia tidak mau mendengarkan betapa keras pun saya mencoba.)

    (7) ‘would’ digunakan setelah so that/ in order that untuk menyatakan keterangan tujuan (agar bisa/dapat) (purpose).
      Contoh:
    (a) She went to the shop so that she would be able to get her daily needs.
      (Dia pergi ke toko agar dia bisa mendapatkan barang keperluan sehari-hari.)
    (b) He was kind to her in order that he would win her heart.
      (Dia baik kepadanya agar dia dapat mengambil hatinya.)

    (8) ‘would’ mempunyai arti maukah dan digunakan dalam kalimat permintaan bentuk pertanyaan untuk meminta secara sopan (polite request).
      Contoh:
    (a) Would you mind making room for me?
      (Keberatankah Anda bergeser sedikit untukku?)
    (b) Would you do it for me?
      (Maukah Anda melakukannya untukku?)

    (9) ‘would’ mempunyai arti maukah dan digunakan untuk menawarkan sesuatu. (offer)
      Contoh:
    (a) Would you like a cup of coffee?
      (Maukah Anda secangkir kopi?)
    (b) Would you have lunch with me today?
      (Maukah Anda makan siang denganku hari ini?)

    (10) ‘would’ mempunyai arti akan sangat dan digunakan untuk menyatakan preferensi (dalam kalimat positif biasanya would digunakan dengan kata kerja: love, hate, prefer, like, be glad/pleased/happy) (preference).
      Contoh:
    (a) I would love a cup of tea.
      (Saya akan sangat suka secangkir teh.)
    (b) I would hate you to say that.
      (Saya akan sangat benci kamu mengatakan itu.)

    (11) 'would' mempunyai arti kira/sangka..., tetapi saya tidak yakin digunakan dengan kata imagine, say, think untuk menyatakan pendapat yang kurang diyakini benar (opinion).
      Contoh:
    (a) would imagine that it will take about 14 hours to Yogyakarta.
      (Saya kira dari sini ke Yogyakarta akan memakan waktu kira-kira 14 jam, tetapi saya tidak yakin.)
    (b) would say that she'll come.
      (Saya kira dia akan datang, tetapi saya tidak yakin.)                                       

    (12) 'would' mempunyai arti biasanya akan dan digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu kejadian atau kegiatan yang terjadi secara teratur di masa lampau (past habits).
      Contoh:
    (a) She would sit there for hours.
      (Dia biasanya akan duduk di sana selama berjam-jam.)
    (b) When I was a child, I would go for a swim everyday
      (Ketika saya kecil, saya biasanya akan pergi berenang setiap hari.)

    (13) ‘would’ mempunyai arti akan selalu dan digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu sifat karakter seseorang (often).
      Contoh:
    (a) She would say so, wouldn’t she?
      (Dia akan berkata begitu, bukan?)
    (b) That’s exactly him. He would forget things whenever he goes out.
      (Itulah dia. Dia akan selalu lupa  barang-barangnya kalau dia pergi keluar.)

    (14) ‘would’ digunakan untuk menyatakan keinginan (desire)
      Contoh:
    (a) The objection that I would raise is that the work will be on schedule.
    (b) She would not have anyone think badly of her father.
  • C.

    SHALL [(PASTI) AKAN, BAGAIMANA KALAU, DIHARAPKAN, WAJIB]

    (1) ‘shall’ mempunyai arti akan dan digunakan dengan subyek I dan we untuk menunjukkan perkiraan masa depan (future).
      Contoh:
    (a) I shall be glad to help.
    (b) We shall know the result by next week.

    (2) ‘shall’ mempunyai arti pasti akan dan digunakan untuk menunjukkan keinginan, tekad dan janji apa yang pasti akan terjadi dan apa yang harus dilakukan (determination).
      Contoh:
    (a) I shall do it for you.
      (Menyatakan keinginan dan tekad.)
    (b) I shall come again to see you.
      (Menyatakan keinginan dan tekad)
    (c) This law shall have effect in Indonesia.
      (Menyatakan apa yang harus dilakukan)
    (d) That day shall come.
      (Menyatakan apa yang pasti akan terjadi)
    (e) You shall have all you wish for.
      (Kamu akan mendapatkan apa yang kamu inginkan)  

    (3) ‘shall’ mempunyai arti bagaimana kalau dan digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu tawaran atau usulan dalam kalimat tanya (digunakan dengan subyek I dan we) (suggestion/proposal).
      Contoh:
    (a) Shall I (Would you like me to) cook for you?
      (Bagaimana kalau saya memasak untukmu?)
    (b) Shall we go home now?
      (Bagaimana kalau kita pulang sekarang?)

    (4) ‘shall’ mempunyai arti diharapkan dan digunakan dengan subyek you, he, she, it dan they, tidak dengan I dan we, untuk memberi perintah atau instruksi (order).
      Contoh:
    (a) All students shall not go home before 12.00.
      (We want all students not to go home  before 12.00.)
    (b) You shall have your hair cut.
      (We want you to have your hair cut.)
    (c) He shall do his work better.
      (We want him to do his work better.)

    (5) ‘shall’ mempunyai arti akan dan digunakan untuk menyatakan adanya ancaman (threat).
      Contoh:
    (a) You shall be fined if you exceed the speed limit.
    (b) He shall be punished for his carelessness.

    (6) ‘shall’ digunakan dengan orang ketiga untuk menyatakan kewajiban melakukan sesuatu dalam surat kontrak dan dokumen legal lainnya (obligation).
      Contoh:
    (a) The second party shall be responsible for the maintenance cost of the building.
      (Pihak kedua bertanggung jawab terhadap biaya pemeliharaan gedung.)
    (b) The hirer shall not keep animals in the building.
      (Penyewa tidak diperkenankan memelihara binatang di dalam  gedung.)
5.

THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS: CAN, COULD

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  • A.

    CAN (BISA/DAPAT, MUNGKIN, BOLEH), CANNOT, CAN’T (negatif)

    (1) 'can' digunakan untuk menyatakan kemampuan (ability).
      (1.1) menyatakan kemampuan sekarang secara umum
        Contoh:
    (a) can swim fast.
    (b) can come again tomorrow.
    (c) can promise you that.
      (1.2) menyatakan kemampuan keterampilan atau pengetahuan yang didapatkan dai belajar
        Contoh:
    (a) can cook.
    (b) She can speak Chinese
    (c) He can drive a car.

    (2) 'can' digunakan untuk menyatakan izin (permission).
      (2.1) izin seseorang untuk melakukan sesuatu
        Contoh:
    (a) You can use my car.
    (b) You can smoke here.
      (2.2) izin untuk diri sendiri melakukan sesuatu
        Contoh:
    (a) Can I pick you up?
    (b) Can I borrow your book?

    Bentuk the present perfect tense dari the modal auxiliary verbs (can, may, could) yang menyatakan izin adalah be allowed to.
    Contoh: He has been allowed to come with us.

    (3) 'can' digunakan untuk menyatakan permintaan tolong (request).
      Contoh:
    (a) Can you open the door?
    (b) Can help me?

    (4) ‘can’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kemungkinan (possibility).
      Contoh:
    (a) There is someone in the house. Who can it be?
    (b) That can't be my sister as she is out.

    Bentuk negatif dari can dan could, yaitu can’t dan couldn’t digunakan untuk menyatakan keyakinan bahwa sesuatu itu mungkin terjadi. Jangan gunakan ‘mustn’t’ dalam hal ini.
    Contoh: He works from 8.00 am to 5.00 pm. He can’t/couldn’t be at home now.

    (5) ‘can’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kebingungan dan keterkejutan (surprise).
      Contoh:
    (a) Can he be serious?
    (b) Where can she have taken her to?

    (6) ‘can’ digunakan untuk menyatakan perilaku khusus atau keadaan khusus (typical).
      Contoh:
    (a) It can be very cold at night.
    (b) She can be very moody.

    (7) ‘can’ digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu usulan (suggestion/proposal).    
      Contoh:
    (a) We can go out if you like.
    (b) We can take you home if you like.

    (8) ‘can’ digunkan untuk menyatakan suatu keputusan yang diambil sekarang untuk melakukan sesuatu di masa yang akan datang (decision).
      Contoh:
    (a) You can have lunch after swimming.
    (b) We can talk about it when we meet this afternoon.

    (1) ‘can’ digunakan untuk menyatakan seseorang mempunyai kemampuan atau kesempatan melakukan sesuatu.
      Contoh:
    (a) We can have dinner tonight.
    (b) We can leave it here.
    (2) ‘be able to’ digunakan untuk membentuk kalimat future dan perfect tense.
      Contoh:
    (a) He will not be able to do it without you.
    (b) They have been able to succeed in the contest.
    (3) Bentuk lampau dari can adalah could.
    (4) ‘was/were able to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kemampuan tertentu untuk melakukan sesuatu di satu kesempatan di masa lampau. Untuk menyatakan kemampuan secara umum, gunakan could.
    Contoh:
    (a) I was finally able to see my favourite/favorite singer after waiting for 2 hours.
    (b) He was able to visit me when he was here.
    (5) ‘can’ dan could tidak mempunyai bentuk infinitive dan participle. Kita menggunakan be able to, be allowed to dengan infinitive untuk menggantikan can dan could.
    (6) Bentuk negatif cannot ditulis menjadi satu kata.
  • B.

    COULD (MUNGKIN, DAPAT, BISA, SEHARUSNYA, MERASA INGIN), ‘COULD NOT’ disingkat COULDN’T.

    (1) ‘could’ digunakan sebagai bentuk lampau dari can (the past form of ‘can’).
      Contoh:
    (a) When I was young, I could stay up all night and not get tired.
      (Saat saya masih muda, saya mampu bergadang sepanjang malam dan tidak lelah.)
    (b) We asked if he could help us.
      (Kita bertanya apakah dia dapat membantu kita.)
    (2) ‘could’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kemampuan dalam satu kesempatan di masa lampau (digunakan dengan kata kerja see, hear, taste, feel, smell, understand, remember, guess, tell, follow) (ability in the past).
      Contoh:
    (a) I could feel something moving under my pillow.
    (b) She couldn’t understand it no matter how she tried to.    
    (3) ‘could’ digunakan untuk menyatakan izin (Bolehkah?) (permission).
      Contoh:
    (a) Could I use your phone, please?
      (Bolehkah saya menggunakan telponmu?)
    (b) Could I borrow your ladder please?
      (Bolehkah saya meminjam tanggamu?)
    (4) ‘could’ digunakan untuk menyatakan izin (Bolehkah?) (permission).
    (Dapatkah?, Bisakah?) (polite request).
      Contoh:
    (a) Could you take care of my mother while I am away?
      (Dapatkah engkau menjaga ibuku selagi aku pergi?)
    (b) Could you pick me up at seven?
      (Dapatkah engkau menjemputku jam tujuh?)

    Kita menggunakan can’t untuk menolak izin dan permintaan di atas:
    No, you can’t  untuk izin dan No, I can’t untuk permintaan.

    (5) ‘could’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kemungkinan (mungkin) (possibility).
      Contoh:
    (a) He could be here any time. (Dia mungkin segera tiba.)
    (b) They could have missed the train. Don’t worry!
      (Mereka mungkin ketinggalan kereta. Jangan kuatir!).
    (6) ‘could’ digunakan untuk memberikan usul (dapat, bisa) (suggestion).
      Contoh:
    (a) We could ask Mr. Brown for help.
      (Kita dapat meminta bantuan Tuan Brown.)
    (b) You could find another job.
      (Engkau bisa mendapatkan pekerjaan lain.)
    (7) could digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang telah mengganggu atau tidak menyenangkan atau kritik larena seseorang tidak melakukan sesuatu yang (seharusnya, semestinya).' could have' digunakan untuk membicarakan sesuatu yang terjadi di masa lampau (annoyance or should)
      Contoh:
    (a) He could have at least called.
      ( Dia seharusnya mnelepon.)
    (b) She could have told me earlier.
       (Dia  seharusnya/semestinya memberitahukanku lebih awal.) 
    (c) You could ask before  you borrow my pen.
    (Anda bisa memintanya sebelum meminjam pena saya.)
    (d) You could  have asked before you borrowed my pen.
    (Anda seharusnya memintanya sebelum Anda meminjam penaku.)
    (8) ‘could’ digunakan untuk menekankan perasaan seseorang (merasa ingin) (strong inclination).
      Contoh:
    (a) I am so disappointed I could kill him.
      (Saya sangat kecewa. Saya merasa ingin membunuhnya.)
    (b) She is so angry she could scream.
      (Dia sangat marah. Dia merasa ingin berteriak.)
6.

THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS: MAY, MIGHT

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  • A.

    MAY (BOLEH, MUNGKIN), MAYN’T (negatif, jarang digunakan)

    (1) ‘may’ digunakan untuk menyatakan izin (permission).
      Contoh:
    (a) May I come in? Yes, you may.
    (b) You may come any time you like.
    (2) ‘may’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kesopanan terutama jika berbicara pada orang yang lebih tua (politeness).
      Contoh:
    (a) May I talk to you for a minute?
    (b) May I borrow your magazine?
    (3) ‘may’ digunakan untuk menyatakan boleh tidaknya sesuatu dilakukan terutama dalam bentuk tulisan di papan pengumuman (allowance and prohibition).
      Contoh:
    (a) Children under seven years old may not swim here.
    (b) Visitors may use the car park.
    (4) ‘may’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kemungkinan (possibility).
      Contoh:
    (a) You may be wrong.
    (b) This medicine may help you.
    (5) ‘may’ digunakan di depan kalimat untuk menyatakan suatu harapan
      Contoh:
    (a) May God bless you!
    (b) May there be peace with you!
    (6) ‘may . . . but’ mempunyai arti ‘although atau  perhaps’. ‘may’ di sini digunakan untuk membicarakan suatu fakta yang diakui kebenarannya. ‘may… but’ digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu fakta tidak berpengaruh pada argumen utama.
      Contoh:
    (a) You may say so, but I don’t agree with you.
    (b) She may think she is clever, but she should not show it so obviously.
    (c) He may be clever, but it doesn’t mean he can be more successful later on.
    (7) ‘may’ digunakan untuk menyatakan tujuan melakukan sesuatu (purpose).
      Contoh:
    (a) Please come here so that I may see you more clearly.
    (b) Come in please so that you may not get wet.
    (c) I will call him so that he may prepare the food earlier.
    (8) ‘may’ biasanya digunakan dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan dan akademik untuk menyatakan apa yang bisa terjadi dalam situasi tertentu (typical occurrences).
      Contoh:
    (a) After getting married, a couple may have difficulty in adapting
      themselves for the first two six months.
    (b) A single parent may have difficulty in bringing up their children.
    (9) ‘may’ digunakan dalam anak kalimat (subordinate clause) untuk menyatakan tujuan (purpose).
      Contoh:
    (a) Learn that you may help others more.
    (b) Eat that you may live.
    (1) ‘may’ tidak digunakan untuk menanyakan kemungkinan. Untuk menanyakan kemungkinan, gunakan likely dengan arti probable (mungkin).
      Contoh:
    (a) Are you likely to go swimming? Bukan May you go swimming?
    (b) Is it likely that you will go swimming?
    (2) ‘may’ dapat digunakan untuk menanyakan kemungkinan dalam kalimat tanya negatif dan kalimat tanya tak langsung.
      Contoh:
    (a) May he not join us?
    (b) Do you think he may come?
    (3) ‘may not/might not’ mempunyai arti It is possible that…, sedangkan cannot mempunyai arti It is not possible that….
      Contoh:
    (a) He may not be late (It is possible that he is late).
    (b) He can’t be late (It is not possible that he is late).
    (4) ‘maybe’ ditulis menyatu dan mempunyai arti perhaps (mungkin) dan digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu itu mungkin atau benar. Pemakaian maybe lebih informal dari perhaps.
      Contoh:
    (a) Maybe he will be late.
    (b) Maybe he is wrong.
    (5) ‘may’ tidak digunakan untuk menanyakan kemungkinan? Untuk menanyakan kemungkinan, gunakan likely.        
      Contoh: Are you likely to come tomorrow? Bukan May you come tomorrow?
    (6) Bentuk negatif may not dapat digunakan untuk menanyakan kemungkinan.
      Contoh: May we not be coming?
  • B.

    MIGHT (MUNGKIN, BOLEH), MIGTN’T (negatif, jarang digunakan)

    (1) ‘might’ digunakan sebagai bentuk lampau dari may terutama dalam kalimat tak langsung (indirect speech) untuk menyatakan izin (permission) atau kemungkinan (possibility).
      Contoh:
    (a) He said that he might come.
    (b) She said that we might play the piano.
    (c) Thinking that she might get angry, he didn’t want to talk to her.
    (2) ‘might’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kemungkinan (possibility). Kemungkinan yang ditunjukkan oleh might lebih kecil dari yang ditunjukkan oleh may.     
      Contoh:
    (a) He might come, or he might not.
    (b) He might be late.
    (3) ‘might’ digunakan untuk menyatakan izin (permission).
      Contoh:
    (a) If I might just add to what you said, . . .
    (b) I wonder if I might borrow your newspaper.
    (4) ‘might’ digunakan untuk mengusulkan sesuatu yang benar, menyenangkan, sopan (dengan nada marah) apa yang seseorang sebaiknya/seharusnya lakukan (should).
      Contoh:
    (a) I thought that we might go home now.
    (b) You might at least say hello when you meet him.
    (5) ‘might’ digunakan untuk mengusulkan melakukan sesuatu di masa yang akan datang (suggestion).
      Contoh:
    (a) You might like to try it.
    (b) You might try this medicine.
    (6) ‘might’ digunakan untuk menyatakan permintaan (request).
      Contoh:
    (a) You might just drop by the store.
    (b) You might just go once in a while.
    (7) ‘might’ digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa seseorang tidak terkejut dengan apa yang telah terjadi (could have been expected).
      Contoh:
    (a) I might have thought that there was a bomb.
    (b) I might have known that he would say so.
    (8) ‘might’ digunakan dengan well untuk menyatakan penekanan (emphasis).
      Contoh:
    (a) He is very tricky. You might well be careful.
    (b) How will we make money? You might well ask.
    (9) ‘might’ digunakan untuk menanyakan informasi (asking for information).
      Contoh:
    (a) Who might she be?
    (b) What might this mean?
    (c) How might we do it?
    (10) ‘might’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang hanya akan terjadi di masa  lampau yang tidak terjadi lagi sekarang (typical occurrences in the past).
      Contoh:
    (a) In the past you might go to jail for doing that.
    (b) At that time, girls might not be allowed to go to school.
    (11) ‘might’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang mengganggu karena tidak dikerjakan (annoyance).
      Contoh: You might have told me.
    (12) ‘might’ digunakan dengan but untuk memperkenalkan sesuatu yang bertolak belakang dengan yang terjadi (introduce).
      Contoh: They might be a good team, but today they played badly.
    (13) ‘might’ digunakan dalam pertanyaan untuk menyatakan ketidaksetujuan.
      Contoh: What are you doing here? Might I ask?
    (1) ‘might’ biasanya digunakan seperti may. Hanya saja, might menunjuk pada satu situasi yang kemungkinannya lebih kecil dari may (50% untuk may dan 30% untuk might). Kita tidak menggunakan might untuk menyatakan kemungkinan di waktu lampau. Jika kita ingin mengatakan Dia mungkin sakit kemarin, bahasa Inggrisnya adalah Perhaps he was sick yesterday, bukan He might be sick yesterday.
    (2) ‘might’ tidak digunakan untuk menanyakan izin dalam kalimat langsung.
    Kita tidak  bertanya langsung Might I use your telephone?  
    Kita mengatakan: I wonder if I might use your telephone.
    (3) ‘might’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kritik
    Contoh:
    (a) You might ask before you read my book.
    (b) You might have told me that she was coming.
    (4) ‘might/may as well’ menyatakan suatu usul yang antusias.
      Contoh: I might/may as well begin.
7.

THE MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS: MUST, SHOULD, OUGHT TO

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  • A.

    MUST (HARUS, MUNGKIN), MUST NOT, MUSTN’T (HARUS TIDAK, TIDAK MUNGKIN, TIDAK BOLEH)

    (1) ‘must’ digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa sesuatu itu perlu terjadi (necessity, obligation).
      Contoh:
    (a) He must go to see the doctor.
    (b) We must go now.
    (c) I must do my homework.
    (2) ‘must’ digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa sesuatu itu mungkin dan masuk akal berdasarkan suatu kenyataan (conclusion, very likely).
      Contoh:
    (a) They look alike. They must be twins.
    (b) How could you do that? You must be out of your mind.
    (c) He’s got gray hair. He must be above forty years old.
    (d) She must have a problem. She has been unhappy since this morning.
      Jika kita menyatakan suatu kesimpulan yang negatif, kita tidak menggunakan must not, tetapi kita menggunakan can’t atau couldn’t.
      Contoh:
    (a) That can’t be wrong. I have followed the instruction.
    (b) Everybody knows that. It couldn’t have been a mistake.
    (3) ‘must’ digunakan untuk bersikeras seseorang melakukan sesuatu dan diharapkan tidak ditentang (insistence).
      Contoh:
    (a) You simply must read this wonderful novel.
    (b) You must write down your name.
    (4) ‘must’ dalam bentuk negatif (must not) digunakan untuk menyatakan larangan (prohibition). American English biasanya menggunakan can’t.
      Contoh:
    (a) You must not smoke.
    (b) You must not go.
    (c) You must not do it.    
    (5) ‘must’ digunakan dalam kalimat tanya untuk menanyakan apa yang dipikirkan oleh pendengar sebagai sesuatu yang perlu dilakukan (opinion).
      Contoh:
    (a) Why must I do the housework?
    (b) Why must you always turn the lights on?
    (6) ‘must’ digunakan untuk memberikan nasehat atau mengusulkan sesuatu (advising or recommending).
      Contoh:
    (a) I must ask you not to do it again.
    (b) We must stay calm and wait.
    (7) ‘must’ digunakan dalam kalimat tanya untuk menunjukkan sesuatu itu tidak menyenangkan (irritating questions).
      Contoh:
    (a) Must you always speak so loudly?
    (b) Must you go to bed without brushing your teeth?
    (c) Must you make so much noise?
    (1) Bentuk lampau dari must dengan arti harus adalah had to.
    Contoh: I didn’t talk long as I had to go to the bank yesterday.
    (2) ‘must’ dapat digunakan dalam indirect speech.
    Contoh: He said that he must/had to leave.
    (3) Dalam kalimat tanya dan negatif kita menggunakan can untuk mengekspresikan kepastian. Jangan gunakan must dalam hal ini.
    Contoh:
    (a) Who can that be? There is nobody at home.
    (b) It can’t be him. He is out of town.
    (4) ‘must’ + have + past participle digunakan untuk menyatakan kesimpulan di masa lampau dalam kalimat positif. Gunakan can + have + pas participle dalam kalimat tanya dan negatif.
    Contoh:
    (a) It must have been love, but it is over now.
    (b) Somebody was looking for you. It must have been your father.
    (c) What can he have done? He can’t have stolen the money.
    (5) ‘must’ menyatakan suatu keharusan atas kesadaran sendiri, sedangkan have (got) to menyatakan keharusan yang terpaksa karena adanya tekanan.
    Contoh:
    (a) I must stop working.
      (Saya terpaksa berhenti bekerja.)
    (b) I have to stop working.
      (Saya terpaksa berhenti bekerja.)
    (6) Singkatan dari must not, yaitu mustn’t digunakan dalam British English.
  • B.

    OUGHT TO (SEHARUSNYA, SEBAIKNYA, HARUS), OUGHT NOT TO, OUGHTN’T TO (negatif)

    (1) ‘ought to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kebenaran umum yang ada di dalam masyarakat (harus).
      Contoh:
    (a) We ought to say ‘thank you.’
      (Kita harus mengucapkan  ‘terimakasih.’)
      Yes, I think you ought (to).
    (b) The younger ought to respect the older.
      (Yang lebih muda harus menghormati yang lebih tua.)
    (2) ‘ought to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan apa yang seharusnya dilakukan dibandingkan dengan apa yang sedang terjadi saat ini (mengkritik atau menyesali apa yang sedang terjadi) (seharusnya) (criticism or regret).
      Contoh:
    (a) The police ought to direct the traffic better.
      (Polisi seharusnya mengatur lalu lintas dengan lebih baik.)
    (b) The government ought to bring down the illiterate rate in our country.
      (Pemerintah seharusnya menurunkan tingkat buta huruf di negara kita.)
    (3) ‘ought to’ digunakan untuk memberikan nasehat untuk melakukan sesuatu (sebaiknya) (advice). Gunakan should jika subyek adalah I.
      Contoh:
    (a) You ought to improve your driving skill.
      (Kamu sebaiknya meningkatkan keterampilan mengemudimu.)
    (b) You ought to try the food at the new restaurant.
      (Kamu sebaiknya mencoba makanan di restoran  baru itu.)
    (4) ‘ought to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kemungkinan besar sesuatu itu seperti yang diperkirakan berdasarkan sesuatu yang masuk akal (pasti akan) (logical probability).
      Contoh:
    (a) This is not the rush hour. He ought to be here soon.
      (Ini bukan jam sibuk. Dia pasti akan segera tiba.)
    (b) He left early. He ought to arrive early too.
      (Dia berangkat lebih pagi dari biasanya. Dia pasti akan tiba lebih cepat dari biasanya.)

    (1)

    ‘to’ tidak digunakan dalam question tag.

      Contoh: We ought to come early, oughtn’t we?
    Kita tidak mengatakan: We ought to come early, oughtn’t we to?

    (2)

    ‘oughtn’t to’ yang disingkat dan yang digunakan dalam kalimat tanya jarang digunakan dalam American English. American English menggunakan should.

      Contoh: She ought to call us, shouldn’t she?

    (3)

    ‘ought to’ jarang digunakan dalam kalimat negatif dan tanya. Jika ought digunakan dalam kalimat negatif dan tanya, to dapat dihilangkan (optional).

     

    Contoh:

    (a) You oughtn’t (to) forget her.
    (b) Ought you (to) do that

    (4)

    ‘ought to’ sebaiknya digunakan dengan kalimat tanya tak langsung dan kalimat negatif tak langsung.

     

    Contoh:

    (a) Do you think we ought to leave now?
    (b) I don’t think we ought to leave now.

    (5)

    ‘ought to have’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang seharusnya terjadi tetapi tidak terjadi atau menyatakan kesimpulan yang belum tentu akan terjadi atau menyatakan sesuatu yang mungkin telah terjadi sekarang (criticism or regret).
    Contoh:

    (a) He ought to have told me, but he forgot.
      (seharusnya terjadi, tetapi tidak)
    (b) They ought to have come back. Where are they?
      (Mereka seharusnya, tetapi belum tentu, telah pulang)    
    (c) She ought to have done it by now.
      (mungkin telah terjadi sekarang)

     

    (6) Perhatikan posisi dari mid-position adverbs seperti always.
    Contoh:
    (a) They ought always to study.
    (b) They always ought to study.
    (7) Dalam abad ke-19 kita dapat mengatakan ‘He didn’t ought to have gone’. ‘ought to’ di sini dianggap sebagai kata kerja utama tetapi tidak digunakan lagi dalam bahasa Inggris moderen. Sekarang kita mengatakan: He ought not to have gone.
  • C.

    SHOULD (SEBAIKNYA, INGIN, MUNGKIN), SHOULD NOT, SHOUDLN’T (negatif)

    ‘should’ adalah salah satu modal auxiliary verbs yang paling sulit digunakan.

    (1) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu itu baik, perlu dan tepat dikerjakan pada saat tertentu.
      Contoh:
    (a) I should work tomorrow.
      (Saya harus bekerja besok.)
    (b) If you see anything wrong, you should let me know.
      (Jika Anda melihat sesuatu yang tidak benar, Anda harus/sebaiknya memberitahu saya.)
    (2) ‘should’ digunakan untuk memberi nasehat atau usul (advice).
      Contoh:
    (a) Should I apologise/apologize ?
      (Haruskah saya meminta maaf?)
    (b) You should keep the money. Don’t waste it.
      (Anda harus menyimpan uang itu. Jangan menghamburkannya.)
    (c) I think you should wait a little longer and give her time to think.
      (Saya rasa Anda sebaiknya menunggu sebentar lagi dan beri dia waktu untuk berpikir.)
    (3) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menanyakan Apakah Anda ingin saya…
    (Do you want me to…)
      Contoh:
    (a) Should I open the door?
      (Apakah Anda ingin saya membuka pintu?)
    (b) Should I talk to her?
      (Apakah Anda ingin saya berbicra dengan dia?)
    (4) ‘should’ digunakan untuk membuat permintaan yang sopan (polite request).
      Contoh:
    (a) I should like to phone her.
      (Saya ingin menelepon dia.)
    (b) I should be thankful for that.
      (Saya ingin berterima kasih untuk hal itu.)
    (5) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kemungkinan sesuatu itu terjadi (mungkin) (possibility).
      Contoh:
    (a) Don’t worry! Everything should be fine.
      (Jangan kuatir! Semuanya mungkin baik-baik saja.)
    (b) The traffic should be bad during after office hours.
      (Lalu lintas mungkin macet setelah jam kantor.)
    (6) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang diharapkan terjadi, belum terjadi (seharusnya) (expectation).
      Contoh:
    (a) They should be arriving now.
      (Mereka seharusnya tiba sekarang.)
    (b) He should have come earlier.
      (Dia seharusnya telah tiba lebih awal.)
    (7) ‘should’ digunakan sebagai bentuk lampau dari shall (dalam indirect speech).
      Contoh:
    (a) I said that I should be more than happy to help.
    (b) He asked us what time we should go?
    (8) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu usulan atau pendapat karena adanya sesuatu yang penting atau mendesak. ‘should’ digunakan dengan kata kerja suggest/recommend/insist + that clause atau kata sifat important, vital, urgent, mandatory + that clause.
      Contoh:
    (a) He suggested that I should see the doctor.
    (b) She recommended that I should be on time.
    (c) They insisted that he should come immediately.
    (d) It’s important you should come early.
    (9) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan perasaan. ‘should’ digunakan dengan adjective + that clause.
      Contoh:
    (a) It is annoying that you should allow children to play in the room.
    (b) I am worried that we should drive at night.
    (10) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang seseorang tidak betul-betul yakin. Kata kerja yang digunakan dengan should untuk menyatakan hal ini diantaranya adalah: imagine, believe, think, say.
      Contoh:
    (a) I should think/believe so.
    (b) I should say she is about 10 years old.
    (11) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang ditanyakan oleh orang lain itu mengganggu. ‘should’ digunakan dengan how yang ditempatkan di depan should. (annoyance).
      Contoh:
    (a) How should I know that she likes you or not?
      (Bagaimana saya mengetahui bahwa dia suka kamu atau tidak?)
    (b) How should I know that he is clever?
      (Bagaimana saya mengetahui bahwa dia pintar?)
    (12) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa tak ada alasan mengapa sesuatu itu tidak dilaksanakan. ‘should’ digunakan dengan why. ‘why’ ditempatkan di depan should (no reason).
      Contoh:
    (a) Why should I do it for him?
    (b) Why should I apologise/apologize?
    (13) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan keterkejutan mengenai suatu kejadian atau keadaan. ‘should’ digunakan dengan who dan what. ‘who’ dan what ditempatkan di depan should (surprise).
      Contoh:
    (a) Who should see me but my ex-girlfriend!
    (b) What should we do but wait!
    (14) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa seseorang akan terkejut jika mengalaminya atau melihatnya (surprise).
      Contoh:
    (a) You should see it, and you will know.
    (b) You should see it performed live.
    (15) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sangat setuju dengan pernyataan seseorang sebelumnya (agree).
      Contoh:
    (a) ‘I hope that she will like it.’ ‘I should think so (too)!’
    (b) ‘Everybody will agree.’ ‘I should say so!’
    (c) ‘It is not expensive.’ ‘I should think not.’
    (16) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kewajiban di masa lampau yang tidak terpenuhi sehingga menyebabkan rasa penyesalan atau kekesalan. ‘should’ digunakan dengan have menjadi should have (past obligation).
      Contoh:
    (a) He should have told me earlier. I am upset.
    (b) They should have asked for my permission. I am regretful.
    (17) ‘should’ digunakan untuk menyatakan jika sesuatu terjadi (if it happens) dalam if-clauses.
      Contoh: I will tell him if I should see him.
    (18) ‘should’ digunakan untuk membuat koreksi (correction).
      Contoh: This is not right. His name should be spelled J-e-a-n, not J-a-ne.

    (1)

    ‘should’ + infinitive tidak digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kejadian di masa lampau. Gunakan be supposed to dengan maksud seperti ini.

      Contoh:
    (a) I was supposed to wash the dishes.
    (b) He was supposed to be here before 10, but she wasn’t.
    (2) ‘should have’ + the past participle digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kegiatan di masa lampau yang tidak terjadi, mungkin atau tidak mungkin terjadi.    
      Contoh:
    (a) I should have called you earlier. (Saya seharusnya meneleponmu lebih awal.)
    (b) He should have arrived by now.
      (Dia seharusnya dan mungkin sudah tiba sekarang.)
    (3)  ‘must’ mempunyai arti yang lebih kuat dari should dan ought to    
      Contoh:
    (a) My doctor said that I must exercise. (an order)
    (b) My doctor said that I should exercise. (a piece of advice)
    (4)  ‘should’ digunakan dalam anak kalimat yang menyatakan reaksi dan pemikiran pribadi terhadap sesuatu yang telah terjadi.
      Contoh:
    (a) I am sorry that you should think so.
    (b) It is surprising that he should leave without saying anything
8.

BE SUPPOSED TO, BE TO, NEEDN'T, NEEDN'T HAVE

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  • A.

    BE SUPPOSED TO (diharapkan, diperkenankan, dipercaya)

    (1) ‘be supposed to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu atau seseorang itu  diharapkan dan diperlukan karena adanya adat, hukum  atau peraturan (rules).
      Contoh:   
    (a) You are supposed to wear the seat-belt while driving.    
      (Anda harus/diharapkan memakai sabuk pengaman selagi mengendarai mobil.)
    (b) I am supposed to pay my instalment/installment every month.
      (Saya harus/diharapakan membayar cicilan saya setiap bulan.)
    (2) ‘be supposed to’ digunakan dalam kalimat negatif untuk menyatakan sesuatu atau seseorang itu tidak diizinkan untuk melakukan sesuatu (prohibition).
      Contoh:   
    (a) You are not supposed to swim here. It is very dangerous.
      (Anda tidak diperkenankan berenang di sini. Berenang di sini sangat berbahaya.)
    (b) He is not supposed to go into the laboratory.
      (Dia tidak diperkenankan untuk masuk ke ruang laboratorium.)
    (3) ‘be supposed to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang dipercaya ada (be believed to/that).
      Contoh:   
    (a) He was supposed to have lived two hundred years.
      (Dia dipercaya hidup dua ratus tahun.)
    (b) It is supposed to be a fascinating show.
      (Pertunjukan itu dipercaya sebagai sebuah pertunjukan yang mempesona.)         
    (4) ‘be supposed to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan maksud (be intended to).
      Contoh:   
    (a) This fuel is supposed to last for three hours.
      (Bahan bakar ini dimaksudkan untuk bertahan selama tiga jam.)
    (b) We were supposed to have gone.
      (Kita dimaksudkan telah pergi.)
    (5) ‘be supposed to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang sudah direncanakan atau dijadwalkan.
      Contoh:   
    (a) The bus is supposed to leave tonight.
      (Bis direncanakan/dijadwalkan berangkat malam ini.)
    (b) The plane is supposed to arrive at 3:00 pm.
      (Pesawat direncanakan/dijadwalkan tiba pukul 3.00 sore.)
    (6) ‘be supposed’ digunakan untuk menyatakan perlunya sesuatu dilakukan (be required to atau be expected to).        
      Contoh:   
    (a) You are supposed to write it in code.
      (Anda diharapkan menulis dalam kode.)
    (b) He is supposed to do his homework in ink.
      (Dia diminta mengerjakan pekerjaan rumahnya dengan menggunakan tinta.)
    (1) Kita juga dapat menggunakan be said to, be believed to untuk menggantikan be supposed to dengan arti pada (3) di atas (be believed to/that).
       Contoh:
    (a) It is said/believed that he is 99 years old. (Dia dipercaya berumur 99 tahun.)
    (b) He is said/believed to be 99 years old. (Dia dipercaya berumur 99 tahun.)
    (2) ‘be supposed to’ digunakan juga untuk menyatakan kontras (bertolak belakang) antara yang seharusnya terjadi dengan yang sebenarnya terjadi (contrast).
      Contoh:
    (a) Rats are supposed to be afraid of cats, but the rats in the city aren’t.
    (b) You were supposed to go for an interview. What’s wrong?
    (3) Untuk menyatakan suatu jadwal kegiatan dan keperluan yang lebih pasti, gunakan be to. Tingkat kepastian be supposed to kurang dari be to.
  • B.

    BE TO (akan, harus, merencanakan, mungkin)

    (1) ‘be to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan, instruksi, tugas, apa yang harus terjadi dan apa yang perlu terjadi (be required to, be expected to).
      Contoh:
    (a) You are not to smoke here. (Anda tidak boleh merokok di sini.)
    (b) What is to be done here? (Apa yang harus dikerjakan di sini?)
    (c) She is to call as soon as she is home.
      (Dia akan meneleponmu segera setelah dia pulang.)
    (d) You are to deliver this package at once.
      (Anda harus mengirim paket ini segera.)
    (2) ‘be to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan apa yang akan terjadi setelah dipersiapkan (plan).
      Contoh:
    (a) We are to get married in December.
      (Kami merencanakan menikah di bulan Desember.)
    (b) I am to have a picnic with some friends this weekend.
      (Saya merencanakan berpiknik dengan teman-teman akhir pekan ini.)
    (c) The Minister is to visit Singapore next week.
      (Menteri akan mengunjungi Singapura minggu depan.)
    (3) ‘be to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan kemungkinan.
      Contoh:
    (a) The lost money was not to be found (could not be found).
      (Uang yang hilang tidak mungkin ditemukan.)
    (b) Your shoes were not to be stolen.
      (Sepatumu tidak mungkin dicuri.)
    (4) ‘be to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan takdir (future outcome).
      Contoh:
    (a) He wanted to write a book, but it was not to be.
      (Dia ingin menulis buku, tetapi hal itu tak pernah terjadi.)
    (b) He was never to see her again.
      (Dia tak pernah melihat dia lagi.)
    (c) She was to become the wife of a governor.
      (Dia akan menjadi istri dari seorg gubernur.)
    (5) ‘be to’ digunakan dalam kalimat pengandaian untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang tidak sesuai dengan kenyataan (if-clause).
      Contoh:
    (a) If I were to do it again, I would do it better.
      (Seandainya saya harus melakukannya lagi, saya akan melakukannya dengan lebih baik.)
    (b) Were I to tell you that I did it, what would you say?
      (Seandainya saya harus memberitahukanmu bahwa saya yang melakukannya, apa yang akan kamu katakan?)
    (6) ‘be to’ digunakan dalam kalimat pengandaian (conditional sentences) untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang diharapkan terjadi.
      Contoh:
    (a) If you are to succeed, you must work hard.
    (b) If we are to pass the test, we must study hard.
    (7) ‘be to have’ + past participle digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu kejadian yang telah diatur akan terjadi tetapi tidak terjadi di masa lampau.
      Contoh:
    (a) He was to have come to the office yesterday, but he was sick.
    (b) There was to have been a prohibition of smoking in public, but many people have refused to accept it.

    ‘be to’ + be + past participle’ sering digunakan sebagai instruksi dan pemberitahuan.
    Contoh:

    (a) It is to be stored in a cool place.
    (b) This is to be sold.
  • C.

    NEEDN’T, NEEDN’T HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE (tidak perlu)

    (1) ‘needn’t’ berarti tidak perlu melakukan sesuatu (not necessary to do something).
      Contoh:
    (a) You needn’t cook dinner. I’ll do it this afternoon.
      (Kamu tidak perlu memasak makan kalam. Saya akan melakukannya sore ini.)
    (b) You needn’t do it. I will do it for you.
      (Kamu tidak perlu melakukannya. Saya akan melakukannya untukmu.)
    (2) ‘needn’t have’ digunakan untuk menyatakan seseorang tidak perlu melakukan sesuatu yang telah dilakukannya.
      Contoh:
    (a) He needn’t have told her.
      (Dia tak perlu memberitahu dia.)
    (b) You needn’t have bought so much food. We have eaten.
      (Kamu tak perlu membeli begitu banyak makanan. Kami sudah makan.)
    (1) ‘needn’t’ dapat berarti it is not necessarily true.
    Contoh:
    ‘I am sick. It might be typhoid fever.’ ‘It needn’t be. It might be something else.’
    (2) Perhatikan perbedaan antara needn’t dan mustn’t.
    (a) You needn’t tell him. (He already knows.)
    (b) You mustn’t do it. (I don’t want you to do it.)
    (3) ‘need’ sebagai kata kerja utama mempunyai arti memerlukan (require).
    (4) Untuk membuat kalimat tanya, kita dapat mengatakan:
    (a) Did he need have said that?
    (b) Need he have said that?
    (5) ‘need’ sebagai modal auxiliary verb digunakan dalam jenis kalimat berikut:
    (a) You needn’t do it. (negative)
    (b) Need I do it? (question)
    (c)  I wonder if I need do it. (if-clause/whether-clause)
    (d) This is the only thing you need do. (non-assertive structure)
    (6) ‘need’ sebagai modal auxiliary verb jarang digunakan dalam American English.
9.

LIKE, AS, LIKELY

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  • A.

    LIKE

    (1) Kata like adalah preposisi sehingga like digunakan dengan kata benda atau
    kata ganti dan ditempatkan di depan kata benda atau kata ganti tersebut.
    ‘like’ mempunyai arti similar to somebody or something
    (mirip seseorang atau sesuatu).
      like + noun/pronoun
    like + this book/him
      Contoh:
    (a) Your shirt is like my shirt. (Kemejamu mirip kemejaku.)
    (b) Do it like this. (Kerjakan seperti ini.)
    (c) It sounds like the newspaper boy. (Kedengarannya seperti tukang koran.)
    (d) You are talking like my father. (Andaberbicara seperti ayahku.)
      ‘like’ dapat diterangkan oleh very, quite.
      Contoh:
    (a) He is very like his mother.
    (b) She is quite like a mother.
    (c) She is a bit like Jane.
    (2) ‘like’ dapat juga mempunyai arti for example (misalnya, seperti).
      Contoh:
    (a) I prefer action films like Tomb Raider, Die Hard.
      (Saya lebih suka film aksi seperti Tomb Raider, Die Hard.)
    (b) ‘adjectives’ are words like pretty, simple that tell us about nouns.  
      (Kata sifat adalah kata-kata misalnya, pretty, simple yang menerangkan kata benda.)
    (3) ‘like’ digunakan juga dalam komparatif yang menunjuk bagian positif.
      Contoh:
    (a) I don’t eat meat, like Robert.
    (b) I am not a vegetarian, like my brother.

    Jika like digunakan di depan, maka like menunjuk seluruh klausa yang mengikutinya.

    Contoh: Like Rachel, Rose doesn’t go to school. 

    (4) ‘like’ secara informal dapat juga berfungsi sebagai conjunction dengan arti in the same manner
      Contoh:
    (a) No one sings the song like she did.
    (b) It came out like I intended.
    (5) ‘like’ sebagai conjunction dapat juga mempunyai arti as if (seakan-akan).
      Contoh:
    (a) He acts like he owns the place.
    (b) She talks like she is the manager.
  • B.

    AS

    (1) ‘as’ adalah conjunction dengan arti in the way or manner that (dengan cara).
    as + subject + verb  /  as + clauses
    as + I + showed  you    
      Contoh:
    (a) Do as I say!
      (Lakukan dengan cara yang saya katakan kepadamu.)
    (b) It really happened as I told you.
      (Hal itu benar-benar terjadi seperti yang saya katakan.)
    (c) You should have done it as I did.
      (Kamu seharusnya melakukannya seperti yang saya lakukan.)
    (1) Dalam bahasa Inggris informal kita juga mengatakan Do like I say sebagai ganti Do as I say, Treat you like I do sebagai ganti Treat you as I do.
    (2) Dalam kalimat pasif kita tidak mengulang subyek it seperti as is known, as was agreed, as is understood, as is decided
    (3) ‘as I was saying’ digunakan untuk kembali ke subyek yang dibicarakan sebelumnya setelah berhenti sebentar.
      Contoh:
    (a) As I was saying, you should see a doctor.
      (Seperti yang saya katakan, Anda sebaiknya ke doctor.)
    (b) As I was saying, if you concentrate on it, you can do it.
      (Seperti yang saya katakan, jika Anda berkonsentrasi padanya, Anda bisa melakukannya.)
    (2) ‘as’ dengan sebagai dapat berfungsi juga sebagai preposisi seperti dalam kalimat:
    as + noun phrase
    as + a writer
      Contoh:
    (a) He is famous as a writer.
    (b) He works as a driver.
    (c) We use our house as our office.
    (d) Yogyakarta is good as a place to rest.
    (e) She never treats/regards me as a friend.
    (3) ‘as’ digunakan dengan konstruksi berikut dengan arti seperti.
    as + prepositional phrase
    as + in 2004
      Contoh:
    (a) In 2004, as in 2003, the clothing fashion remained the same.
    (b) On Monday, as on Wednesday, I teach English.
    (4) ‘as’ juga digunakan dalam komparatif yang menunjuk bagian positif seperti like.
      Contoh:
    (a) I don’t eat meat as Robert does.
    (b) I am not a vegetarian as Brandon is.

    Perhatikan perbedaan as dan like di bawah ini.

    (a) As your sister, I must tell you this. (I am your sister.)
    (b) Like your sister, I must tell you this. (I am not your sister.)
  • C.

    LIKELY

    ‘likely’ adalah kata sifat dan mempunyai arti mungkin (probable, expected). Kita menggunakan likely untuk menanyakan kemungkinan sesuatu terjadi. Jangan gunakan may menanyakan kemungkinan.

    Beberapa contoh penggunaan likely:

    (a) ‘Is it likely to rain?’ (be likely + to infinitive)
      ‘I don’t think it’s very/most likely.’ (very/most+ likely) 
    (b) I am likely to be late tomorrow. (be likely + to infinitive)
    (c) It’s likely that the meeting will be postponed. (be likely + that-clause)
    (d) It’s unlikely that he will agree. (be + unlikely + that-clause)
    (e) He is a likely candidate for the job. (likely + noun)
      Likely mempunyai arti that seems suitable for a purpose/ to give result.
    (f) ‘a likely story’dikatakan untuk menunjukkan bahwa seseorang tidak percaya dengan cerita tersebut.
    (1) Kita dapat mengatakan He is likely to win, tetapi tidak It is likely for him to win.
    (2) ‘likely’ digunakan untuk menanyakan kemungkinan. Kita tidak boleh menggunakan may untuk menanyakan kemungkinan. (May he come to the party?)
      Contoh:
    (a) Are you likely to come to her party?
    (b) Is it likely to happen?
    (c) Is it likely that he will win?
  • D.

    EXPRESSIONS DENGAN AS, LIKE

    D.1 Expressions dengan as: as always, as usual, as from (as of), as it is, as for, such as, as yet, as is
      (1) ‘as always’, as usual [usually (seperti biasanya)]
    (a) As always, he will sulk.
    (b) As always, he is early.
      (2) ‘as from’, as of [indicating a starting time (mulai)]
    (a) As of now, you should not do it again.
    (b) As from next month, our office will move to that building.
      (3)  ‘as it is’ (considering what is happening now/will happen, in reality)
    (a) We hoped to borrow money from the bank - as it is (since the bank is bankrupt), we have to find another bank.
    (b) We would take a taxi - as it is (since the traffic is jammed) we have to walk.
      (4) ‘such as’ [for example (sebagai contoh), like (seperti)]
    (a) Stationary such as paper, pens, pencils, envelopes is in the drawer.
    (b) They sell vegetables such as cabbages, potatoes, tomatoes and chilies.
      (5) ‘as yet’ [so far (sejauh ini)]
    (a) We haven’t received any news form him as yet.
    (b) Everything has been fine as yet.
      (6) ‘as is’ [in the current condition without change (sebagaimana adanya)]
    (a) You can have a look at the machine. It is sold as is.
    (b) Will you buy this as is?
    D.2 Expressions dengan like seperti something like, more like it.
      (1) ‘something like’ [about (kira-kira), more or less (kurang lebih)]
    (a) It is/costs something like 50 dollars.
    (b) Something like 300 people died in the crash.
      (2) ‘more like it’ (better, more satisfactory)
    (a) Jakarta has a lot of big shopping malls now. This is more like it!
    (b) There are more roads built by the government. This is more like it!
    D.3 Expression dengan like untuk menanyakan pendapat seseorang mengenai  sesuatu  atau  seseorang seperti ‘What’s it like…? What’s she like?’
      Contoh:
    (a) What’s it like living in Jakarta?
    (b) What’s she like?
10.

SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERBS

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  • A.

    NONE OF THE EMPLOYEES

    ‘none of’ + plural countable noun/uncountable noun dianggap bentuk tunggal dalam bahasa tulisan tetapi sering juga dianggap sebagai bentuk jamak dalam bahasa lisan. Dengan demikian, kita dapat mengatakan:
    None of the employees was/were absent yesterday.

  • B.

    THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS

    ‘the number of’ + plural countable noun menunjuk pada jumlah sehingga dianggap sebagai bentuk tunggal. Kita mengatakan:
    The number of students is twenty.

  • C.

    TWO THIRDS OF THE CITY, SOME OF THE BOO/BOOKS, A LOT OF THE LUGGAGE

    ‘two thirds of’, jika diikuti oleh uncountable noun, akan dianggap tunggal, tetapi jika diikuti oleh plural countable noun, akan dianggap jamak.    

    Contoh:    
    (a) Two thirds of the city is flooded.
    (b) Two thirds of all houses in the city are flooded.
    (c) Some of the book is good.
    (d) Some of the books are good.
    (e) A lot of the luggage was stolen.
  • D.

    EACH WORKER

    ‘each’ mempunyai arti masing-masing. ‘each’ adalah tunggal dan diikuti oleh singular noun, sedangkan each of diikuti oleh plural noun. ‘We each’ menggunakan plural verb (kata kerja jamak).

    Contoh:

    (a) Each worker is going to get a share.
    (b) Each of the workers is satisfied.
    (c) Each of the boys gets a piece of cake.
    (d) We each have a car.
  • E.

    MATHEMATICS

    ‘each’ mempunyai arti masing-masing. ‘each’ adalah tunggal dan diikuti oleh singular noun, sedangkan each of diikuti oleh plural noun. ‘We each’ menggunakan plural verb (kata kerja jamak).

    Contoh:

    (a) Each worker is going to get a share.
    (b) Each of the workers is satisfied.
    (c) Each of the boys gets a piece of cake.
    (d) We each have a car.     
  • F.

    THE CHINESE, THE POOR, THE RICH, THE ELDERLY

    Kata sifat di atas adalah jamak karena mewakili sekelompok orang

    Contoh:

    (a) The Chinese drink tea.
    (b) The poor get poorer, the rich get richer.
    (c) The elderly are above 55 years old.
  • G.

    TEN THOUSAND RUPIAH(S), TWO HOURS OF REST, THREE KILOMETRES/KILOMETERS

    ‘ten thousand rupiah(s)’, two hours of rest, three kilometres adalah tunggal karena menunjukkan sejumlah uang, sejumlah waktu dan jarak.

    Contoh:

    (a) Ten thousand rupiahs is too expensive.
    (b) Two hours of rest a day is enough.
    (c) Three kilometres is a short distance.
  • H.

    SOMEBODY TALKED TO HIMSELF OR HERSELF, SOMEBODY TALKED TO THEMSELVES

    ‘Somebody talked to himself or herself’, lebih formal dari Somebody talked to themselves. Tetapi, kecenderungan sekarang ini adalah menggunakan kata ganti jamak (themselves) karena kalau kita menggunakan himself atau herself (untuk membedakan jenis kelamin), pengucapannya akan lebih panjang.

    Contoh:

    (a) Nobody called, did they?
    (b) Nobody is so stupid as to kill himself/themselves.
    (c) One should take care of himself. (not themselves)
    (d) One should take care of his (her) own business. (not their own business)
    (e) Each person has to take care of their (his or her) belongings.
    (f) Everybody thinks that they are (he or she is) the best.
    (g) Anybody who is late will be punished by their (his or her) teacher.
  • I.

    THE GOVERNMENT, THE STAFF

    ‘the government’, the staff, the police adalah collective noun. Jika kita menekankan sekelompok orang, kita menganggap collective noun sebagai jamak, dan jika kita menekankannya sebagai perorangan, kita menganggap nya sebagai tunggal. ‘collective noun’ menurut American English adalah tunggal, sedangkan menurut British English adalah jamak atau/dan tunggal. Dalam TOEFL collective noun dianggap tunggal.

    Contoh:

    (a) The government is/are trying to build more roads.
    (b) The staff is/are working hard.
    (c) The police were here. (khusus untuk police, kita menggunakan plural verb)
    (d) The audience was/were impressed.

    ‘collective noun’ yang lain adalah: the audience, the bank, the choir, the class, the club, the committee, the company, the couple, the crew, the crowd, the faculty, the family, the firm, the government, the group, the jury, the majority, the minority, the Press, the public, the school, the team

  • J.

    NEITHER OF; ANY OF

    ‘neither of’ + plural noun dan ‘any of’ + plural noun dapat digunakan dengan kata kerja jamak atau tunggal.

    Contoh:

    (a) Neither of them is/are here.
    (b) Is/Are any of them interested?
    (c) Neither of the students work/s in the office.
  • K.

    NO PROBLEM OR NO PROBLEMS

    ‘no problem’ maksudnya adalah There is not a problem, sedangkan ‘no problems’ adalah There aren’t any problems. Jadi, kita dapat mengatakan no mistake, no mistakes, no car, no cars, no restaurant, no restaurants.

  • L.

    CALCULATIONS

    Kita dapat menggunakan kata kerja tunggal dalam bahasa lisan, tetapi dalam bahasa tulisan kita menggunakan kata kerja jamak.

    Contoh:

    (a) Three times four are/is twelve. (3 x 4 = 12)
    (b) Two multiplied by three are/is six. (2 x 3 = 6)
    (c) Four minus two equal/s two. (4 – 2 = 2)
    (d) Four from six leave/s two. (4 –2 = 2)
    (e) Two plus three equal/s five. (2 + 3 = 5)
    (f) Two and three are/is five. (2 + 3 = 5)
    (g) Six divided by two equal/s three. (6 : 2 = 3)
  • M.

    MORE THAN ONE

    ‘more than one’ adalah tunggal dan memerlukan kata kerja tunggal.

    Contoh:

    (a) More than one student is going to pass the exam.
    (b) More than one bus leaves for that city.
    (c) More than one teacher is absent.
    (d) More than two teachers are absent.
  • N.

    KIND OF, SORT OF, TYPE OF

    Bentuk jamak dari sort of (a), kind of (a) dan type of (a) adalah sorts of, kinds of dan types of.

    Contoh:

    (a) This sort of (a) story is strange.
    (b) These sorts of stories are strange.
    (c) This kind of food is not good for you.
    (d) Those kinds of games are not good for you.

    ‘those sorts of story’ adalah penggunaan yang tidak formal dan dianggap salah. 

  • O.

    FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS

    (1) Pecahan antara 1 sampai 10 adalah tunggal dan menggunakan plural noun
     
    (a) It weighs two and a half (2.5) kilograms.
    (b) The building has nine point six (9.6) hectares of land.
    (2) Pecahan di bawah 1 (satu) menggunakan:
    of + a + singular noun + singular verb
     
    (a) Three quarters of a kilograms is not enough.
    (b) One eights of a ton is more than enough.
    (c) Zero point four of a meter is very short.
      Pecahan di bawah 1 (satu) bisa juga menggunakan plural noun tanpa of
     
    (a) 0.6 centimeters is too short.
    (b) 0.7 litres/liters is too much.
  • P.

    AND

    Jika ekspresi yang disambung oleh and menunjuk pada sesuatu sebagai satu kesatuan, maka ekspresi tersebut adalah tunggal. Perhatikan contoh di bawah ini. ‘demonstrative’ yang digunakan adalah tunggal (this).

    Contoh:

    (a) This coke and ice cream is very nice.
    (b) This coke and whisky is very strong.
    (c) The writer and lecturer published his book.
    (d) Buying and selling is her business.
    (e) Knowledge and wisdom makes a great man.
    (f) Fast and steady wins the race.

    Jika kedua kata benda yang disambung dengan and menunjuk pada dua benda atau orang yang berbeda, maka kita harus menggunakan articles atau possessive adjectives.
    Contoh:

    (a) My father and my teacher teach me English.
    (b) The lecturer and the writer have given a speech.
  • Q.

    ANY STUDENT(S)

    ‘any’ dapat diikuti oleh kata benda tunggal (singular noun) maupun kata benda jamak (plural noun).

    Contoh:

    (a) Any student who is late will be punished.
    (c) Any students who are late should be punished.
  • R.

    WHO IS/ARE THERE? WHAT IS/ARE BROKEN?

    Interrogative Pronoun biasanya menggunakan kata kerja tunggal (singular verb) tetapi jika si pembicara berpikir bahwa benda atau orang yang dimaksud lebih dari satu, dia dapat menggunakan kata kerja jamak (plural verb).

    Contoh:

    (a) Who is/are here?
    (b) What is/are broken?
  • S.

    SERIES, MEANS, HEADQUARTERS, BARRACKS

    Beberapa kata dapat digunakan dalam bentuk yang sama baik sebagai kata benda tunggal (singular noun) ataupun kata benda jamak (plural noun).

    Contoh:

    (a) It is an endangered species.
    (b) The bicycle was an important means of transportation in the past. 
  • T.

    NOUNS WHICH ARE ALWAYS PLURAL

    Kata-kata berikut selalu dalam bentuk jamak:
    ashes, belongings, clothes, congratulations, earnings, glasses, goods, headquarters, outskirts, particulars, premises, riches, savings, scales,  scissors, spectacles, stairs, stockings, surroundings, thanks, trousers

11.

SEQUENCE OF ADJECTIVES IN A NOUN PHRASE

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  • PREFACE

     Perhatikan contoh berikut:

    (a) Her some other first two luxurious, beautiful, fascinating, white French automatic commercial stainless steel coffee-maker.
    (b) Those several other spacious new blue big American space vehicles.

    ‘adjective’ yang menerangkan frasa benda dapat disusun dengan pedoman sebagai berikut walaupun beberapa ahli tata bahasa mempunyai pandangan yang tidak sama.

    pre-determiner + central determiner + ordinal number + cardinal number + general description + physical state (specific description)/present participle/past participle + proper adjective + adjective ending in - ic(al), -al + material + noun (purpose)/gerund + noun + head noun

    ‘determiners’ adalah kata-kata seperti some, the, your yang ditempatkan di depan kata benda untuk menunjukkan bagaimana kata benda itu digunakan.

  • PENJELASAN URUTAN ADJECTIVES

    Penjelasan Urutan Adjectives:

    (1) predeteminers
     
    (a) ‘predeteminers’ ditempatkan di depan articles, possessives atau demonstratives.
      - all, both, half (all the money, both the boys, half of the shoes)
      - what, such (what a good story, such a wonderful evening)
      - rather, quite (rather a lazy boy, quite a good boy)
    (b) ‘double’, twice, three times
    ‘determiners’ ini ditempatkan di depan kata benda baik tunggal maupun jamak.
      Contoh: twice this amount, double his salary, three times his power
    (c) ‘one third’, three-quarters
    ‘determiners’ ini ditempatkan di depan kata benda dan dapat juga menggunakan konstruksi of.
      - one fourth (of) his strength, two thirds (of) their money
    (2) central determiners
     
    (a) ‘articles’: a, an, the
    (b) ‘demonstratives’: this, that, these, those
    (c) ‘possessive adjectives’: my, your, his, her, our, their, its, one’s, whose
    (d) ‘indefinite adjectives’: some, few, more, several, every, each, either, no, more, less
    (e) ‘wh-determiners’: whatever, whichever, whoever, whose
    (3) post determiners:
     
    (a) ‘ordinal numbers’ adalah the first, the second, the third, …
    (b) ‘cardinal numbers’ adalah one, two, three, four, …
    (c) ‘general ordinals / sequence adjectives’ adalah last, next, following,
    (d) ‘quantifiers’: many, few, little, several, less, more, etc
    (4) general description’: beautiful, expensive, well-known, spacious, fascinating, ...
    (5) physical state (specific description):
     
    (a) Size and length (big, small, large, medium, large, long)
    (b) Shape and width (round, oval, square, fat, thin, slim, wide)
    (c) Age (old, young, middle-aged)
    (d) Temperature (hot, cold, warm, cool)
    (e) Color (black, blue, brown, gray, green, pink, purple, red, violet, white)
      ‘physical adjectives’ seperti lovely, cute, young, old, pretty, beautiful, ugly, blind, jika berurutan dan panjang, menggunakan koma untuk memisahkannya. Jika pendek, koma tidak digunakan.
      Contoh: a lovely, tall, young man atau a lovely tall young man
    (6) participle adjectives:  
    (a) present participles: surprising, confusing, tiring, boring
    (b) past participles: surprised, confused, tired, bored
    (7) proper adjectives:
      (Nama tempat, negara yang  penulisannya dimulai dengan huruf besar.) Chinese, American, French, Scandinavian, New York
    (8) adjective ending in  -ic(al),-al, -ary:
      economical, practical, automatic, scientific, literary, military
    (9) gerund (verb + ing): swimming, dancing
    (10) nouns as modifiers: glass, bathroom
    (1) Kadang-kadang beberapa adjective dapat bertukar tempat di dalam noun phrase.     
    Contoh:
    (a) a tall young student. (young student diterangkan oleh tall)
    (b) a young tall student. (tall student diterangkan oleh young)
    (2) ‘adjective’ yang berupa pendapat (pretty, good, delicious, attractive) ditempatkan di depan adjective yang berupa fakta (old, hot, cold, long, short, round).
    (3) Urutan adjective yang berupa fakta: size + age + colour + origin + material + noun
      Contoh:
    a short old man, big brown eyes, long black hair, a small iron chair, a new wooden chair an old blue polyester shirt.
    (4) ‘adjective’ yang menyatakan size (ukuran) dan length  (panjang) ditempatkan di depan adjective yang   menyatakan shape (bentuk) dan width (lebar) seperti:
    a small square table, a long wide river
    (5) Jika ada dua warna, kita mengatakan menggunakan and seperti a red and white flag.

    Urutan adjective yang panjang di atas hanya sebagai contoh. Dalam penggunaan sehari-hari kita menggunakan kombinasi adjective sebagai berikut:

    (a) age + material + noun
    an old wooden table
    (b) quality + colour + noun
    a good blue cover
    (c) opinion + origin + noun
    a fascinating American girl
    (d) shape + purpose + noun
    an oval water container
    (e) size + participle adjective + noun
    a small stolen car
    (f) opinion + type + purpose + noun
    a reputable international human rights organisation/ organization
12.

NOUN + ADJECTIVE, VERB + ADJECTIVE

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  • A.

    NOUN + ADJECTIVE

    Seperti yang telah kita ketahui sebelumnya bahwa kata sifat biasanya ditempatkan di depan kata benda, tetapi kata sifat dapat juga ditempatkan setelah kata benda.

    (1) Kata sifat yang menyatakan sesuatu yang berhubungan dengan ukuran ruang dan waktu.
      Contoh:
    three inches long, three days ago, two metres/meters deep, one metre/meter high, ten feet wide, two years younger
    (2) Kata sifat yang menggunakan cardinal numbers seperti: one, two, three, four.
      Contoh:
    lesson five, chapter four, page two, line ten, World War one.
      ‘ordinal numbers’ (the first, the second, the third, . . .) tetap ditempatkan di depan kata benda.
      Contoh:
    the fifth one, the fourth chapter, the second page, the tenth line,
    the first World War
    (3) Kata sifat enough dapat ditempatkan di belakang kata benda.
      Contoh: money enough / enough money, time enough / enough time
    (4) Kata sifat yang merupakan satu istilah (set phrase) yang dipengaruhi oleh bahasa Prancis.
      Contoh:
    court martial (pengadilan militer), postmaster general (kepala pos), account payable (hutang), account receivable (piutang), the prime minister elect (perdana menteri terpilih), Attorney General (Jaksa Agung), the president elect (presiden terpilih), Secretary General (Sekretaris Jendral)
    (5) Kata sifat yang berhubungan dengan waktu dan tempat (above, ago, after dan lain-lain).
      Contoh: the month after, the station nearby, the paragraph above
    (6) Kata sifat yang berakhiran -ible dan -able dan the past participle ditempatkan setelah kata benda jika kata benda tersebut didahului oleh article ‘the’, ordinal number seperti first, last, urutan kejadian seperti next atau bentuk superlative seperti best atau jika kata benda tersebut diikuti oleh preposisi.
      Contoh:
    (a) The man responsible for it is me.
    (b) What is the first planet reachable by human beings?
    (c) The job suitable for him is not available.
    (d) It is the only grammar book available.
    (e) The next applicant capable of it did not come.
    (f) It is the best car affordable.
    (g) The man injured in the accident was my friend.
    (7) Kata sifat mengikuti indefinite pronoun seperti something, someone, somebody, anything, anybody
      Contoh: 
    (a) They have found something strange.
    (b) Is there anything cheaper?
  • B.

    VERB + ADJECTIVE

    (1) verb + adjective combination ini menyatakan suatu keadaan:
      Contoh:
    break free (lepas bebas), break loose (lepas lolos), die young (mati muda), fly high (terbang tinggi), hold tight (memegang erat), lie quiet (berbaring tenang), open wide (terbuka lebar), sit motionless (duduk tak bergerak), stand still (berdiri diam), think smart (berpikir pintar), think big (berpikir besar)
    (2) linking verb + adjective
      ‘linking verb’ adalah kata kerja yang menghubungkan subyek langsung ke kata sifat. Kata kerja ini biasanya berupa kata kerja yang berhubungan dengan panca indera.
      Contoh:
    smell good, taste delicious, look nice, seem right, feel good, is diligent, appear true
    (3) Kombinasi dengan kata kerja get, become, grow, go, turn, stay, remain, keep, fall
      Contoh:  
    get late, become happy, grow old, go wild, turn blue, stay cool, keep clean, fall unconscious

     

13.

REDUCED ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

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  • PREFACE

    ‘reduced clauses’ adalah clauses yang dapat disingkat. ‘clauses’ yang demikian sering membingungkan mereka yang mempelajari bahasa Inggris. Berikut adalah sebuah ringkasan penyingkatan clauses.

  • A.

    REDUCED CLAUSES OF TIME

    Menghilangkan subject + be:

    Contoh:

    (a) When + subject + be + prepositional phrase
      When (I was) in Tangerang, I studied English.
    (b) When + subject + be + noun
      When (we were) students, we used to have picnics.
    (c) When + subject + be + adjective
      When (she is) sick, she immediately sees a doctor.
    (d) When + subject + be + the present participle
      When (I am) watching TV, I prefer to be alone.
    (e) When + subject + be + the past participle
      When (it is) decorated, the house will look better.

    Jika kita ingin menghilangkan subject + be dalam adverbial clause, kita perlu memperhatikan bahwa subject dari main clause (induk kalimat) adalah juga subject dari adverbial clauses (anak kalimat) tersebut.

    Contoh:

    (a) When I was in Tangerang, I studied English.

    Kalimat di atas adalah benar karena subject dari adverbial clause ‘When I was in Tangerang’ sama dengan subject dari main clause. Tetapi, kita tidak dapat mengatakan: ‘When I was a boy, English was studied by me’.

    Hal ini dikarenakan subject dari adverbial clause ‘When I was a boy’, (I) tidak sama dengan subject dari main clause ‘English was studied by me’ (English). Kalimat  salah di atas disebut dangling (menggantung). 

    Pada dasarnya semua bentuk clauses dapat disingkat dengan cara yang sama, yaitu menghilangkan subject + be. Harap diingat bahwa penghilangan subject + be dalam when clause yang berupa when + subject + be + preposistional phrase dianggap salah dalam ujian TOEFL. 

  • B.

    REDUCED CLAUSES OF CONTRAST

    Menghilangkan subject + be:

    Contoh:

    (a)

    (Although + subject + be + noun)

      Although (she is) only a girl, she behaves like a lady.
      Although (they are) grown-ups, they still behave like children.
    (b) (Although + subject + be + adjective)
      Although (he was) hungry, he didn’t want to eat.
      Although (he is) arrogant, he is clever.
    (c) (Although + subject + prepositional phrase)
      Although (It was) out of date, it may be useful later.
      Although (we were) in the room, we couldn’t see them leave.
    (d) (Although + subject + be + the present / the past participle)
      Although (he was) thinking hard, he couldn’t figure out what’s the problem was.
      Although (she was) doing that not for money, she still earned some.
      Although (he was) not feeling well, he went to school.
      Although (they are) asked to brush their teeth, they seldom do it.
      Although (he was) cheated a lot of times, he was not angry.
  • C.

    REDUCED CLAUSES OF PLACE

    Menghilangkan subject + be:

    Contoh:

    (a) Repairs will be done wherever (they are) necessary.
    (b) The soldiers have to go wherever (they are) sent by their country.
  • D.

    REDUCED CLAUSES OF CONDITION

    Menghilangkan subject + be:

    Contoh:

    (a) If + subject + be + noun phrase
      If (they are) doctors, they will help.
      If (it is) a failure, everybody will be disappointed.
    (b) If + subject + be + adjective
      If (she is) pretty, she will attract a lot of boys.
      If (it is) inevitable, it should be faced.
    (c) If + subject + be + prepositional phrase
      If (you are) at home, please let me know.
      If (the lift is) out of order, it will be repaired immediately.
    (d) If + subject + the present/past participle
      If (he is) having a meeting, he cannot be disturbed.
      If (you are) having problems, you must talk to me.
    (d) If (it is) well planned, it will be a success.
      If (it is) not properly done, it will cause fires.

    ‘if necessary, if possible (if you can/if it is possible) dan wherever possible’ sudah merupakan idioms sehingga subyek tidak perlu sama.
    Contoh:

    (a) If necessary, I will do it.
    (b) If possible, we will lend him some money.
    (c) Wherever possible, children eat enough food everyday.
  • E.

    REDUCED CLAUSES OF CAUSE

    Menghilangkan subject + be:

    Contoh:

    (a) Since + subject + be + adjective
      Since (he was) seriously ill, he could not get up.
      The goods should be kept in a safe place since (they are) dangerous.
    (b) Since + subject + be + the present/past participle
      Since (he was) not paying attention, he could not answer the question.
      Since (it was) postponed, the meeting will be rescheduled.
      Since (it was) not ordered, it will be sent back to the company.
  • F.

    REDUCED CLAUSES OF RESULT

    Mengubah ‘so that-clause’ menjadi ‘so as to/in order to + infinitive’,
    so + adjective + that-clause menjadi ‘so + adjective + as to + infinitive

    Contoh:    

    (a) They did it that way so that they could prevent people from getting in.
      They did it that way so as to / in order to prevent people from getting in.
    (b) He put a ‘do not disturb’ notice so that he would not be disturbed.
      He put a ‘do not disturb’ notice so as not to / in order not to be disturbed.
    (c) They are so stupid that they cannot understand the lesson.
      They are so stupid as to understand the lesson.
    (d) He was so quick that he couldn’t be caught
      He was so quick as not to be caught.

    Agar kalimat di atas dapat disingkat dengan menggunakan so as to atau so as not to, kedua subjek dalam kalimat harus sama. Dalam kalimat (a) kedua subjek adalah they dan dalam kalimat (b) kedua subjek adalah he. Perhatikan bahwa dalam kalimat (c) dan (d) di antara so dan as terdapat adjective.

  • G.

    REDUCED CLAUSES OF MANNER

    Menghilangkan subject + be

    Perhatikan penyingkatan clauses of manners

    (a) (as if + subject + be + noun)
      The old woman danced actively as if (she were) a young girl.
    (b) (as if + subject + be + adjective)
      He looks as if (he was) sick/upset.
    (c) (as if + subject + be + prepositional phrase)
      He was on business as if (he were) on holiday.
    (d)  (as if  + subject + be + infinitive)
      He waved as if (he were) to call me.
  • H.

    REDUCED CLAUSES OF COMPARISON

    Contoh:

    (a) as… as + subject + auxiliary verb
      She spoke as fast as I spoke.
      She spoke as fast as I did.
    (b) comparative adjective + object
      He speaks English better than (he speaks) Chinese.
    (c) comparative adjective + subject + be + adjective
      They are more handsome than (they are) attractive.
    (d) comparative adjective +  prepositional phrase
      He is never so naughty as (he is) at home.
    (e) comparative adjective + clause
      I am never so fresh as (I am) when I get up in the morning.
    (f) comparative adjective  + adverb   
      He can never be better than (he is) right here at home. 

    ‘comparison’ yang menggunakan so… as dalam kalimat positif berarti ada penekanan. Biasanya kita hanya menggunakan as… as.

14.

(WOULD) RATHER... THAN, (WOULD) PREFER TO, RATHER THAN, HAD BETTER, WOULD LIKE (SOMEONE) TO ...

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  • A.

    WOULD RATHER... THAN, (WOULD) PREFER TO ..., RATHER THAN, PREFER SOMETHING TO SOMETHING

    ‘would rather’ mempunyai arti: would prefer to (lebih suka).

    Contoh:

    (a) I would rather have ice cream than milk shake.
    (b) Would you rather (prefer to) have ice cream or milk shake?
    (c) I would prefer to have ice cream rather than milk shake.
    (d) I would rather not have anything.
    (e) Do you want  to eat out? (No, I’d rather not.)
    (f) I would prefer to eat out rather than go/to go/going to the movies.
    (a) Dalam kalimat tanya kita menggunakan or untuk memperkenalkan suatu pilihan, sedangkan  dalam kalimat positif yang menggunakan would rather, kita menggunakan than.
    (b) Kita menggunakan rather than dengan would prefer + to infinitive.
    (c) Untuk kalimat negatif, kita menambahkan not setelah would rather/would prefer dan sebelum kata kerja utama sehingga kalimat menjadi:
      - I would rather not have ice cream.
      - I would prefer not to have ice cream.
    (d) Kita menggunakan:
      would prefer + to infinitive + rather than + infinitive
      would prefer + to infinitive + rather than + to infinitive
      would prefer + to infinitive + rather than + verb + ing [dalam contoh (f) di atas]
    (e) Kita mengatakan ‘I’d rather not’ sebagai jawaban pendek.

    Kita menggunakan prefer dengan cara berikut:

     (a) prefer to + verb + rather than + infinitive / to + infinitive / verb + ing
      I prefer to swim rather than play/to play/playing basketball.
    (b) prefer + verb + ing + to  + verb + ing or
      I prefer swimming to playing basketball.
    (c) prefer + verb + ing + rather than + verb + ing
      I prefer swimming rather than playing basketball.
    (d) prefer + something + to + something  
      I prefer tea to coffee.

    (a)

    ‘rather than’ dalam kalimat di atas dapat diganti dengan instead of, tetapi kata kerja yang mengikuti ‘instead of’ harus dalam bentuk verb + ing.

      Contoh: I prefer to stay at home instead of going out.
    (b)

    ‘rather than’ dapat diikuti oleh infinitive, to infinitive atau verb + ing, tetapi lebih baik penggunaannya disesuaikan dengan kata kerja sebelumnya.

    (c)

    Jika kita lebih suka seseorang melakukan sesuatu, kita mengatakannya dengan prefer:
    I prefer you to do it for me.    

      (prefer + somebody + to + infinitive / the present form)
    (d) dengan would rather (would rather + somebody + the past form)
      - I’d rather you did it for me.
      - I’d rather you didn’t smoke.
    (e) Bentuk pertanyaan would rather that… adalah:
      - Would you rather he did it?

    BENTUK LAMPAU DAN PROGRESIF DARI ‘WOULD RATHER’

    (1) Menyatakan kejadian di waktu lampau:
      would rather + have + the past participle
     
    (a) I’d rather have slept a little later to see the ending last night.
      (I didn’t sleep a little later.)
    (b) I’d rather you hadn’t told her.
      (You did tell her.)
    (2) Menyatakan kejadian yang sedang terjadi:
      would rather + be + verb + ing
     
    (a) I’d rather be staying at home than going out right now.
    (b) I’d rather be studying than watching TV.
  • B.

    RATHER THAN

    ‘rather than’ mempunyai arti in preference to somebody or something, more, in a greater degree (lebih baik... dari pada). ‘rather than’ biasanya digunakan dengan konstruksi paralel dengan dua adjectives, adverbials / prepositional phrases, nouns, verb + ing atau infinitives (with or without to).

    Contoh:

    (a) They are sweet rather than beautiful.
    (b) We use the simple present tense rather than the simple past tense.
    (c) I decided to see her rather than call / to call / calling her.
    (d) They ought to be in the bedroom rather than in the sitting room.
    (e) Rather than waiting/wait for her, I decided to go home.
    (f) It should have been you rather than her who announced the news.
  • C.

    HAD BETTER

    ‘had better’ mempunyai arti would be wise/advisable/sensible to, otherwise... (lebih baik dan bijaksana untuk, kalau tidak...). ‘had better’ digunakan untuk menyatakan rekomendasi/nasehat yang sangat kuat. Bentuk negatif dari had better adalah had better not.

    Contoh:

    (a) You’d better not sleep alone.
    (b) You’d better take your medicine.
    (c) I’d better work overtime

    Kalimat yang mengandung had better berikut memberikan peringatan yang jika tidak dilaksanakan akan memberikan akibat tertentu.

    Perhatikan ungkapan berikut:

    (a) I promise I will return the car tomorrow. ‘You’d better!’
      (Saya berjanji akan mengembalikan mobil besok. “Kamu lebih baik begitu!”)
    (b) You’d better not be there after 7.00, or he’ll be upset.
      (Anda sebaiknya tidak berada di sana setelah jam 7.00, atau dia akan kesal.)
    (a) Dalam percakapan kita bisa mengatakan You better go home now tanpa had.
    (b) Pertanyaan negatif : Hadn’t we better go home now?
    (c) Kita dapat juga mengatakan You better had dari pada You’d better.
  • D.

    WOULD LIKE (TO), WOULD LIKE SOMEONE TO, WOULD LOVE TO

    (1) ‘would like (to)’ digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu keinginan dengan sopan.     
      Contoh:
    (a) I would like to see you.
    (b) I would like a cup of tea.
    (2) ‘would like someone to’ digunakan untuk menyatakan keinginan seseorang meminta orang lain untuk melakukan sesuatu.
      Contoh:
    (a) I would like him to join us.
    (b) We would like you to attend the meeting.
    (c) I would like her to come over for dinner.
    (3) ‘would you like (to)’ digunakan untuk menawarkan sesuatu.
      Contoh:
    (a) Would you like to have a cup of coffee?
    (b) Would you like a glass of water?
    (4) ‘would like (to)’ digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang kita tidak percaya akan terjadi dan menyatakan ketidaktakutan akan ancaman dari orang lain.
      Contoh:
    (a) I would like to see if he could really do what he said.
    (b) I would like to know what he means by that.      
    (1) Kata kerja love dan hate digunakan dengan cara yang sama.
     
    (a) I would love (to have) a cup of tea.
    (b) I would hate to swim alone
    (2) Perhatikan jawaban untuk tawaran di bawah ini:
     
    (a) Would you like to join us? I’d like to, / I’d love to, but I can’t.
    (b) Would you like a cup of coffee? Yes, please atau No, thank you.
15.

CLAUSES: SIMPLE/COMPOUND/COMPLEC SENTENCES, COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES

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  • A.

    CLAUSES

    ‘clause’ adalah sejumlah kata yang memiliki subject dan  predicate. ‘clauses’ terdiri dari dua jenis, yaitu independent clauses yang disebut induk kalimat dan dependent clauses yang disebut anak kalimat. ‘independent clauses’ adalah klausa yang dapat berdiri sendiri. Klausa yang demikian disebut juga induk kalimat atau kalimat.        

    Contoh:

    (a) He is a boy.
    (b) He works very hard.

    ‘dependent clauses’ adalah klausa yang tidak dapat berdiri sendiri.

    Contoh:

    (a) ‘who is very lazy’ dalam kalimat ‘He is a boy who is very lazy’.
    (b) ‘what you did’ dalam kalimat ‘I don’t know what you did’.
  • B.

    SIMPLE / COMPOUND / COMPLEX SENTENCES, COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES

    (1) ‘simple sentences’ adalah kalimat yang terdiri dari hanya satu subyek dan satu predikat dan dapat berdiri sendiri.
     
    (a) The boy is smart.
    (b) He works hard.
    (2) ‘compound sentences’ adalah kalimat yang terdiri dari dua simple sentences yang disambung dengan conjunctions (kata sambung).
     
    (a) The boy is smart, and he works hard.
    (b) The girl has a car, but she goes to her office by bus.
    (3) ‘complex sentences’ adalah kalimat yang terdiri dari satu ‘simple sentence’ (induk kalimat) dan paling sedikit satu ‘dependent clause’ (anak kalimat).
     
    (a) The boy works hard so that he can be the best student.
    (b) The girl takes a bus to go to her office which is on Sudirman Street.
    (c) He is the man who reported the matter to the police.
    (4) ‘compound-complex sentences’ adalah kalimat yang terdiri dari paling sedikit satu ‘compound  sentence’ dan paling sedikit satu ‘dependent clause’ (anak kalimat).
     
    (a) He went swimming, and the girl who is his sister went shopping.
    (b) They earned some money, and they put it in the bank in order
      that they could earn the interest which was quite high at the time.
16.

HOW ADVERBS MODIFY INFINITIVE PHRASES

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  • A.

    'ADVERB' YANG DITEMPATKAN DI DEPAN INFINITIVE PHRASES

    ‘adverb’ dapat ditempatkan tepat di depan infinitive phrase yang diterangkan.

    Contoh:

    (a) He did that just/only to make him offended.
    (b) It is selfish of him not to share what he has.
    (c) It is not easy even to give a speech in front of friends.

    ‘adverbs’ seperti deliberately, entirely, purposely, quickly dan adverbs of frequency seperti always, often, usually ditempatkan di depan infinitive phrase yang diterangkan.

    Contoh:

    (a) He was asked always to speak clearly.
    (b) She expects completely to understand the lesson.
    (c) They chose purposely to talk about this.
  • B.

    'ADVERB' YANG DITEMPATKAN DI ANTARA 'TO' DAN VERB / INFINITIVE

    Dalam kalimat They chose purposely to talk about it, penempatan adverb ‘purposely’ di antara kata kerja chose dan to talk membuat kabur kata kerja mana yang diterangkan oleh adverb ‘purposely’. Apakah kata kerja chose atau to talk? Untuk menghindari hal ini, kalimat (c) di atas dapat diubah menjadi:

    (a) They chose to purposely talk about this (purposely menerangkan talk).
    (b) They purposely chose to talk about this (purposely menerangkan chose).

    ‘to’ dan verb yang terpisah oleh adverb disebut juga dengan split infinitive dan sering disalahkan dalam ujian bahkan dalam TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language). Kalimat seperti ‘They chose to purposely talk about this’ akan dianggap salah, tetapi sebagian orang menganggapnya benar. ‘split infinitive’ ini digunakan secara informal. ‘adverbial phrases’ yang terdiri dari lebih dari satu kata jarang digunakan dalam posisi yang demikian karena akan membuat to dan verb terpisah terlalu jauh tetapi kadang-kadang dapat juga digunakan seperti once again, sooner or later, more or less, at once, right away.

    Contoh:

    (a) I’d like to, once again, talk to you.
    (b) We have decided to, sooner or later , buy a car.
    (c) She seemed to, more or less, know what was going on.
  • C.

    'ADVERB' YANG DITEMPATKAN SETELAH 'INFINITIVE PHRASE'

    ‘adverb’ ditempatkan di akhir kalimat jika infinitive phrase pendek.

    Contoh:

    (a) He seemed to have done it accidentally.
    (b) To study it carefully is a must.
  • D.

    'ADVERBS OF MANNER' DAN 'ADVEBS OF FREQUENCY' YANG DIGUNAKAN DENGAN 'AUXILIARY VERBS'

    ‘adverbs’ yang digunakan dengan auxiliary verbs menempati posisi seperti jika digunakan dengan kata kerja utama dalam kalimat.

    Contoh:

    (a) To have quickly done that is really unbelievable.
    (b) To be very fast is how to win this game.

    ‘adverbs of frequency’ dalam kalimat yang menggunakan auxiliary verbs dan infinitive menempati posisi berikut:

    Contoh:

    (a) She appeared always to be smiling.
    (b) She appeared to be always smiling.
    (c) She appeared to always be smiling.
    (d) Never to have said that is a lie.
    (e) To have never said that is a lie.
    (f) To never have said that is a lie. 
17.

REDUCING DEPENDENT CLAUSES USING INFINITIVE PHRASES

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  • A.

    REDUCING NOUN CLAUSES

    (a) How he gets the money is none of my business.
      How to get the money is none of my business.
    (b) Whether or not we should go is up to you
      Whether or not to go is up to you.
    (c) He doesn’t know what he should do.
      He doesn’t know what to do.
    (d) He knows where he can find it.
      He knows where to find it.
    (e) I don’t know whom I should talk to.
      I don’t know whom to talk to.
    (f) We always have discussion with them about how we solve this problem.
    (g) We always have discussion with them about how to solve this problem.

    Berikut ini adalah kata-kata yang biasa digunakan dalam bentuk noun phrase yang dapat diubah menjadi infinitive phrase:
    ask, consider, explain, decide, find out, forget, know, learn, remember, show, teach, understand, wonder       

  • B.

    REDUCING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

    (a) Freddy needs money with which he can get married.
      Freddy needs money with which to get married.
    (b) The only thing you can see here is the forest.
      The only thing to see here is the forest.

    ‘infinitive  phrase’ ditempatkan tepat sesudah kata benda yang diterangkan. 

  • C.

    REDUCING ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

    (1) CLAUSES OF PURPOSE
      Contoh:
    (a) I hurried so (that) I wouldn’t be late.
      I hurried so as not to be late.
    (b) She turned on the TV so (that) she could watch her favo(u)rite show.
      She turned on the TV so as to watch her favo(u)rite show.
    (c) I hurried in order that I wouldn’t be late.
      I hurried (in order) not to be late.
    (d) She turned on the TV in order that she could watch her favo(u)rite show.
      She turned on the TV (in order) to watch her favo(u)rite show.
     
    (a) so that + clause’ dapat diganti dengan so as to + infinitive.
    (b) ‘so that + negative clause’ diganti  dengan so as not to + infinitive.
    (c) ‘in order that + clause’ diganti dengan (in order) to + infinitive.
    (d) ‘in order that + negative clause’ diganti dengan in order not to + infinitive.
    (e) Untuk negative clause, frasa ‘in order’ harus tetap digunakan, sedangkan untuk  positive clause, frasa ‘in order’ dapat dihilangkan.
    (f) ‘not to’ dapat digunakan dengan ‘but’.
      - I came here not to talk to you, but to see her.
    (2) CLAUSES OF CONDITION
      Contoh:
    (a) We will go if it is only to make things better.
      We will go if only to make things better.
    (b) She will not make friends with him if (it is) only to make her mother happy.
      She will not make friends with him if only to make her mother happy.
    (3) CLAUSES OF MANNER
      Contoh:
    (a) He closed his eyes as if he was to sleep.
      He closed his eyes as if to sleep.
    (b) She talked as if she was to win.
      She talked as if to win.
    (4) CLAUSES OF CAUSE
      Contoh:
    (a) She was happy because she could see you.
      She was happy to see you.
    (b) She was sad because she knew what was going on.
      She was sad to know what was going on.
18.

SO AND TO SUBSTITUTION

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  • 'SO' SUBSTITUTION

    (1) ‘SO’ SUBSTITUTION FOR ‘ADJECTIVES’
      Contoh:
    (a) He was not hard-working, and he remained so during his life.
    (b) It was hot in the morning, and it was so the following day.
    (2) ‘SO’ SUBSTITUTION FOR ‘ADVERBS’
      Contoh:
    (a) He drives carefully, and he has driven so since he was young.
    (b) It was hot in the morning, and it was so the following day.
    (3) ‘SO’ SUBSTITUTION FOR ‘NOUN CLAUSES’ AND ‘NEGATIVE FORMS’
      (3.1) ‘SO’ SUBSTITUTION FOR ‘NOUN CLAUSES’
        Kita dapat mengganti noun clause dengan so.    
    Contoh noun clause: (that) he may come late
    Kita dapat mengatakan I think so, I believe so, I hope so,
    I suppose so, I expect so, I imagine so, I guess so, I suspect so,
    I presume so, I assume so, if so, Apparently so,
    I am afraid so, Everybody says so, He told me so
      (3.2) NEGATIVE FORMS
       
    (a) Bentuk negatif yang menggunakan so dan not di antaranya adalah
    suppose, believe, expect, imagine, think
    Khusus untuk kata kerja believe, expect, imagine, think,
    penggunaan dengan so lebih disukai: I don’t believe so,
    I don’t expect so, I don’t imagine so, I don’t think so.
    (b) Bentuk negatif yang hanya menggunakan not di antaranya:
    assume, guess, presume, suspect, hope dan be afraid,
    kita hanya mengatakan: I assume not, I guess not,
    I presume not, I suspect not, I hope not, I am afraid not.
    Kita tidak mengatakan: I don’t  assume so, I don’t guess so,
    I don’t presume so, I don’t suspect so, I don’t hope so,
    I’m not afraid so.
    (1) Kita menggunakan so untuk menggantikan clause setelah kata kerja yang berhubungan dengan pemikiran seperti: be afraid, assume, believe, expect, guess, hope, imagine, presume, suppose, suspect, think, say, tell
    (2) Kita menggunakan so setelah linking verbs seperti be, appear, seem, remain. Bentuk negatif hanya digunakan pada appear dan seem (It appears not/It doesn’t appear so, It seems not/It doesn’t seem so).
    (3) Kita juga dapat mengatakan: if so (kalau demikian).
      Contoh:
    ‘My parents might be away tomorrow.’ ‘If so, you can come over to my place.’
    (4) ‘SO’ IN SHORT ANSWERS
      Kita menggunakan so dalam jawaban pendek dengan auxiliary verb untuk menyatakan suatu hal sebagai sesuatu yang benar, mengejutkan dan baru diketahui.
      Contoh:
    (a) ‘Your parents have come home.’ ‘So they have.’ / ‘Yes, they have.’
    (b) ‘She is very nervous.’ ‘So she is.’ / ‘Yes, she is.’
    (a) Penggunaan so mengandung arti bahwa kita tidak mengetahui hal tersebut sebelumnya, sedangkan penggunaan dengan yes mengandung arti kita telah mengetahui hal tersebut.
    (b) Bentuk kalimat di atas adalah so + pronoun + auxiliary verb (be, can, have, do dan lain lain)

    Kita dapat menggunakan so dalam jawaban pendek dengan kata kerja seperti: appear, believe, gather, hear, say, seem, tell, understand. ‘so’ di sini mempunyai arti bahwa sesuatu itu sudah diketahui sebelum sesuatu itu diberitahukan.  

    Contoh:

    (a) ‘He was in Jakarta.’ ‘So I understand.’
      “Dia berada di Jakarta.” “Begitu yang aku tahu.”
    (b) ‘They passed the test.’ ‘So I heard.’
      “Mereka lulus ujian itu.” “Begitu yang aku dengar.”
    (5) ‘SO’ WITH THE VERB ‘DO’
      Kita menggunakan do so untuk menggantikan action verbs.
      Contoh:
    (a) I have told him to do so.
    (b) I said, ‘get up.’ The children did so.
    (c) ‘Please do your homework.’ ‘I’ve done so.’
      Dalam informal English kita dapat mengganti so menjadi it, this atau that dalam kalimat di atas. Jadi kita dapat mengatakan:
      Contoh:
    (a) I have told him to do it/this/that.
    (b) I said, ‘get up.’ The children did it/this/that.
    (c) ‘Please do your homework.’ ‘I’ve done it/this/that.’
  • 'TO' SUBSTITUTION FOR INFINITIVE PHRASES

    (1) Setelah modal auxiliary verbs
      Contoh:
    (a) They don’t sell furniture, but they used to.
    (b) ‘Are you going to go out?’ ‘Yes, I’ll have to.’
    (2) Setelah main verb tertentu seperti want + to infinitive
      Contoh:
    (a) We didn’t ask him to come, but he wanted to.
    (b) He went to see a lawyer because we advised him to.
    (3) Setelah adjective sebagai predicate; subject + be + adjective + to
      Contoh:
    (a) ‘Would you like a cup of coffee?’ ‘I’ll be glad to.’
    (b) ‘Are you willing to help?’ ‘Yes, I am willing to.’
    (4) Setelah noun (kata benda)
      Contoh:
    (a) I would like to do it very much, but I don’t have (the) time to.
    (b) I hurt her feelings, but I didn’t have the intention to.
    (c) I had the chance to, but I didn’t do it.
    (5) Setelah kata how
      Contoh:
    (a) ‘Do you know how to do it?’ ‘I am sorry. I don’t know how (to).’
    (b) ‘Can you tell me how to make this?’ ‘Ok, I will tell you how (to).’
    (1) Dalam Informal English, to dapat dihilangkan.
      Contoh: He promised to come, but he forgot (to).
    (2) ‘to’ yang digunakan setelah how dapat dihilangkan.
      Contoh: He knows how to do it, but I don’t know how (to).
    (3) Bentuk negatif adalah not to.
      Contoh: I have decided to do it, but he advised me not to.
    (4) Beberapa kata kerja yang dapat digunakan dengan to di atas adalah:
      agree, ask, expect, forget, promise, refuse, try, wish, want, would like
    (5) Setelah kata kerja berikut kita tidak dapat menghilangkan to (to tetap digunakan):
      be able, choose, deserve, fail, hate, hope, intend, mean, need, prefer  
    (6) Bentuk negatif dari would like, want dan like tetap menggunakan to
      Contoh:
    (a) 'Would you like to come?’ ‘No, I wouldn’t like to.’
    (b) ‘Are you going home?’ ‘No, I don’t want to.’
    (c) ‘You should join the dinner.’ ‘I don’t like to.’
19.

ABSTRACT NOUN PHRASES

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  • A.

    ABSTRACT NOUNS AND CONCRETE NOUNS

    ‘abstract noun’ adalah adalah kata benda yang tidak nyata, berbentuk konsep yaitu suatu  ide yang ada di dalam pikiran kita.

    Contoh:
    childhood (masa kecil), honesty (kejujuran), happiness (kebahagiaan),
    imagination (imajinasi), kindness (kebaikan)

    Contoh tambahan:
    anger, behaviour/behavior, bravery, conduct, courage,  harm, moonlight, poetry, safety, violence

    ‘concrete noun’ adalah kata benda yang dapat  kita rasakan secara fisik melalui panca indera seperti kiss (mencium), see (melihat), touch (menyentuh). 

    Contoh:
    a book, a house, a pen, a pencil, glasses, the sky  

  • B.

    BENTUK-BENTUK ABSTRACT NOUNS

    (1)

    ‘abstract nouns’ yang berasal dari kata kerja dengan ditambah akhiran:
    -tion, -sion, -ure, -ance, -ence, -ment, -age, -(e)ry, -ancy, ice, al, -ing (the action of verb + ing)

      Contoh:    
    prevention, construction, departure, seizure, resistance, preference,
    injury, arrangement, marriage, longing, arrival, confusion

    (2)

    ‘abstract nouns’ yang berasal dari kata kerja dengan perubahan sedikit pada akhir kata kerja asal.

      Contoh:
    believe - belief, live - life, defend - defense, advise -advice.

    (3)

    ‘abstract nouns’ yang berasal dari kata sifat dengan ditambah akhiran:
    -ity, -ness, -th, -ty (the state of being + adjective)

      Contoh:
    capability, activity, happiness, kindness, strength, warmth, death

    (4)

    ‘abstract nouns’ yang berasal dari kata sifat dengan menambah akhiran -ance atau -ence.

      Contoh:  
    intelligent - intelligence, brilliant - brilliance, absent - absence, present - presence
    (5) ‘abstract nouns’ yang berasal dari perubahan ‘concrete nouns’ dengan akhiran -hood, dan mengubah concrete noun dan adjective menjadi abstract noun dengan akhiran -ism -ship, -dom  
      Contoh:
    (a) boyhood,  brotherhood, childhood,  neighbourhood, sisterhood
    (b) dictatorship, friendship, kingdom, wisdom, boredom
    (c) atheism, idealism, socialism, militarism, Satanism, terrorism   
    (6) ‘abstract nouns’ yang sama bentuknya dengan kata kerja.
      Contoh:
    defeat, desire, experience, honor, influence, plan quarrel, request, sin
  • C.

    ABSTRACT NOUN PHRASES

    ‘abstract noun phrase’ adalah sebuah frasa yang  salah satu kata pembentuknya adalah abstract noun.

    Contoh:

    - the movement of terrorism, the violence of the war, the necessity to work
  • D.

    FUNGSI ABSTRACT NOUN PHRASES DALAM KALIMAT

    ‘abstract noun’  berfungsi sebagai frasa benda yaitu frasa yang dapat mengisi posisi-posisi benda dalam kalimat, bisa sebagai subjek dan objek.

    Contoh:

    (a) His defense is very good. (abstract noun sebagai subyek)
    (b) I admire his ability to work hard. (abstract noun sebagai obyek)
  • BENTUK-BENTUK ABSTRACT NOUN PHRASES

    (1) OF PHRASE  
      the  +  abstract noun + of  noun phrase
      Contoh:
    (a) The possession of guns is not possible in most countries.
    (b) Her acceptance of the gifts made me happy.
    (c) The decision of his brother to work in that company is not right.
    (2) BY PHRASE
      the + abstract noun + of phrase + by phrase
    the + abstract noun + by phrase + of phrase
      Contoh:
    (a) the discovery of gold and money by the workers
      the discovery by the workers of gold and money
    (c) the hunting of endangered animals by people
      the hunting by people of endangered animals
    (3) ‘FOR NOUN PHRASE’  VERSUS  ‘OF NOUN PHRASE’
      Untuk kata benda yang menyatakan perasaan atau emosi, kita dapat menggunakan of atau for
      Contoh:
    (a) her love for her children
      her love of her children
    (b) his hatred for all women
      his hatred of all women
    (4) Beberapa ‘abstract nouns’ yang berasal dari kata kerja menggunakan
            preposisi yang lain
     
    prepositions | abstract nouns
    for demand, desire, pity, request, respect, preference, urge, wish, application, care, blame
    to answer, assistance, damage, injury, invitation, obedience, resemblance, resistance, solution
    on attack, concentration, dependence
    in belief, success, trust
    about complaint, dream, enquiry
      Contoh:
    (a) his demand for a higher salary
    (b) her assistance to her boss
    (c) the attack on the harbour/harbor
    (d) the trust in her father
    (5) Beberapa ‘abstract nouns’ yang berasal dari kata kerja dan kata sifat tetap menggunakan preposisi yang digunakan sebelumnya (tidak ada perubahan).
     
    (a) ‘abstract nouns’ dari kata kerja:
      belief in, cooperation with, consent to, demonstration against
    (b) ‘abstract nouns’ dari kata sifat:
      excitement about, familiarity with, interest in, proficiency in, responsibility for
       
      Jika ‘abstract noun’ diikuti oleh kata sifat yang menggunakan preposisi of, abstract noun tersebut menggunakan possessive adjective (his, her, my, your, our, their).
      Contoh:
    (a) He is jealous of her sister.
      his jealousy of her sister
    (b) She is ignorant of the law.
      her ignorance of the law
    (6) ‘abstract noun phrases’ yang menunjukkan perasaan dapat diikuti oleh infinitive phrases atau at phrase (phrases yang dimulai dengan ‘at’)
      Untuk kata benda yang menyatakan perasaan atau emosi, kita dapat menggunakan of atau for
      Contoh:
    (a) her surprise to meet you
      her surprise at meeting you
    (b) his embarrassment to do that  
      his embarrassment at doing that
      Beberapa kata yang dapat menggunakan konstruksi di atas adalah:
    astonishment, disappointment, disgust, excitement, satisfaction
    (7) ‘abstract noun phrases’ yang berasal dari kata kerja dapat juga diikuti oleh to-infinitive phrase   
      Contoh:
    (a) His decision to marry her was announced yesterday.
    (b) My hesitation to accept her offer has offended her.
    (8) ‘abstract noun phrase’ dapat juga diikuti oleh noun clause.
      Contoh:
    (a) His advice that I should see the doctor is really what I need.
    (b) Their announcement that we would be fired surprised us.
    (9) ‘abtract noun phrase’ mengikuti oleh kata kerja terutaman kata kerja do, give, go for, have, make, take
      Contoh:
    (a) have a swim/a bath/a rest/a nap/a dream/a try/a talk/fun
    (b) have a think/a run/a jog/a drive
    (c) take a rest/a walk/a look/a bath
    (d) give a shout/a kick/a push/a blow
    (e) do a lot of work
    (f) make trouble/a guess/a suggestion
    (g) go for a run
    (h) hear a cough/a crash/a cry/a sound/a weeping
    (i) would like a taste/a kiss

    I will have a rest lebih baik dari I want to rest karena dalam kalimat yang kedua kita merasakan ada kesan kalimat tersebut berhenti mendadak, kecuali ada kelanjutan kata-kata dari kalimat kedua tersebut.          

    (10) ‘abstract noun phrases’ mengikuti preposisi dan membentuk sebuah frasa umum
      Contoh:
    above average, beyond repair, in danger,  in love, in person, in real life, in recovery, into trouble, in trouble, under suspicion, with great regret, on trial, out of danger 
  • MENGUBAH ADVERBS MENJADI ABSTRACT NOUN PHRASES

    Perhatikan kalimat berikut:

    possessive adjective + adjective + abstract noun phrase
    her + extreme + beauty
    (a) He is extremely healthy - his extreme health.
    (b) She performed very well - her great performance.
    (c) They came late - their late coming.
    (d) He is very depressed - his great depression.
    (e) He hates her very much - his great hatred for her.
    (f) She is extremely beautiful - her extreme beauty.
    (g) He arrived earl y- his early arrival.

    Kita mengubah adverbs: very dan very much menjadi great.
    Contoh: She loves me very much menjadi her great love for me.

20.

ABSOLUTE PHRASES

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  • PREFACE

    ‘absolute phrase’ adalah suatu frasa di mana subyek dari kalimat asalnya dipertahankan, sedangkan kata kerjanya mengalami perubahan menjadi participle, atau jika kata kerjanya adalah be, maka be ini dapat dihilangkan. Posisinya dapat ditempatkan di mana saja di dalam kalimat dan berfungsi menerangkan seluruh kalimat. ‘absolute phrase’ ini tidak ada hubungan gramatikal dengan kata yang terdapat dalam kalimat yang mengandung absolute phrase. Bentuk yang demikian sering digunakan di dalam bahasa sastra, tulisan dan penyingkatan judul berita. Dewasa ini bentuk yang demikian juga digunakan di dalam bahasa sehari-hari.

    ‘absolute phrase’ selalu mempunyai subyek sendiri, tidak seperti participial phrase yang subyeknya tergantung pada subyek dari main clause. 

  • A.

    BENTUK ABSOLUTE PHRASES YANG MENGGUNAKAN PARTICIPLE DARI KATA KERJA UTAMA

    (a) The book having been sold out, I have to borrow it from my friend.
      (Buku itu telah terjual habis, saya harus meminjamnya dari teman saya.)
    (b) The lift functioning again, people don’t have to climb a long set of stairs.
      (Lift itu berfungsi lagi, semua orang tidak perlu harus naik tangga.)
    (c) He ran for his life, his body wounded.
      (Dia berlari menyelamatkan diri, tubuhnya terluka.)
    (d) He getting better, his boss asked him to come back to work.
      (Dia lebih sehat, bosnya menyuruhnya kembali bekerja.)
  • B.

    BENTUK ABSOLUTE PHRASES YANG MENGGUNAKAN KATA KERJA BANTU 'BE'. 'BE' DIHILANGKAN.

    Untuk absolute phrase yang menggunakan be, be dapat dihilangkan. Demikian juga jika menggunakan participle dari be, yaitu being dan having been dapat dihilangkan, terutama dalam kalimat yang menggambarkan keadaan.

    (1) Menggunakan be + prepositional phrase (‘be’ dapat dihilangkan)
     
    (a) The product now (being) in demand, the company is making a lot of profit.
      (Produk itu sedang laku keras, perusahaan untung besar.)
    (b) The product (being) at the end of its life cycle, the company is trying to replace it.
      (Produk itu diakhir daur hidupnya, perusahaan sedang mencoba mencari gantinya.)
    (2) Menggunakan be + adjective (‘be’ dapat dihilangkan)
     
    (a) The product now (being) famous, the company is making a lot of profit.
      (Produk itu sekarang terkenal, perusahaan untung besar.)
    (b) The woman (being) painful, the doctor is giving her painkillers.
      (Wanita itu kesakitan, dokter memberikannya obat penahan sakit.)
    (3) Menggunakan be + adverb (‘be’ dapat dihilangkan)
     
    (a) The problem (being) over, everybody is happy.
      (Masalah berakhir, setiap orang senang.)
    (b) The police (being) here, the thief was hiding.
      (Polisi berada di sini, pencuri sedang bersembunyi.)
  • C.

    BENTUK ABSOLUTE PHRASES YANG MENGGUNAKAN 'COMPLEMENT' YANG MENDAHULUI SUBJEK

    ‘complement’ yang dimaksud di sini adalah adjective, noun (yang digunakansetelah linking verb - appear, seem, look dan be) dan prepositional phrase (in her hands, on the move yang digunakan setelah kata kerja bantu be) yang menerangkan subjek. 

    (a) He was surprised to hear the news, in great grief the boy, his friends encouraged him.
      (Dia terkejut mendengar berita itu, dalam kesedihan anak itu, teman-temannya menghiburnya.)
    (b) The creature ran into the forest, full of mud its face, the people with guns in hand chased it.
      (Makhluk itu berlari ke hutan, penuh lumpur mukanya, orang-orang dengan pistol di tangan mengejarnya.)
  • D.

    BENTUK ABSOLUTE PHRASES YANG MENGGUNAKAN NFINITIVE

    ‘infinitive’ yang digunakan di sini mengesankan arti be to

    (a) They have planned to go swimming, all of them to wear nothing.
      (Mereka merencanakan pergi berenang, semuanya tidak akan memakai apa pun.)
    (b) The school to be opened soon, the students are happy.
      (Sekolah akan segera dibuka, para siswa senang.)
  • E.

    BENTUK ABSOLUTE PHRASES YANG MENGGUNAKAN KATA 'WITH' DAN 'WIHOUT'

    (a) The sky was very clear with the birds flying in it.
      (Langit sangat terang, dengan burung-burung terbang di dalamnya.)
    (b) Without plans in mind, he walked around killing time.
      (Tanpa rencana dalam pikirannya, dia berjalan berkeliling menghabiskan waktu.)
    (c) With my father working and my mother abroad, I am very lonely.
      (Dengan ayahku bekerja dan ibuku di luar negeri, saya sangat kesepian.
  • F.

    BENTUK ABSOLUTE PHRASES DENGAN 'WITH' DAN 'WIHOUT' YANG MIRIP DENGAN PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

    absolute phrases | prepositional phrases
    With the book unread | With unread books
    Without her hair dried | With her dried hair
    With his anger growing | With his growing anger
21.

COMPOUND NOUNS

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  • PREFACE

    ‘compound nouns’ adalah gabungan beberapa kata yang berfungsi sebagai kata benda yang mengandung satu kesatuan arti.

    ‘compound nouns’ dibentuk dengan cara berikut: 

  • A.

    NOUN + NOUN

    Contoh:

    a keyboard, an office boy, Army officers, a web site, bedrooms, bookstores, calfskin, girlfriends, hand phones, head-masters, health food, heart attack, history books, mineral water, road signs, seaweeds, sheepdogs, ski-boots, the health department, the milkmen, tortoise shell, traffic lights,  wastepaper

    Penulisan noun compounds ini ada yang disambung jika noun + noun tersebut pendek sekali, ada yang menggunakan tanda sambung (-), dan ada yang ditulis terpisah. Penulisan yang terpisah tidak disalahkan.

    Contoh:
    - bathroom, hourglass, mastermind, mealtime, postman, seaside
    - head-master, master-key, master-plan, rope-leather
    - tortoise shell, office boys

    ‘noun + noun’ digunakan untuk:

    (a) mengelompokkan benda, kata benda yang kedua sebagai subyek dari kata benda yang pertama.  
      Contoh:
    - a sheepdog (a dog that looks after sheep)
    - water plants (the plants that produce water)
    - the school bus (the bus that goes to the school)
    (b) membicarakan benda dari suatu kelompok yang sangat dikenal sehingga membentuk satu kesatuan arti.
      Contoh:
    - the milkman, the government officer, the postman,
    (c) menyatakan suatu binatang yang dibunuh untuk diambil sesuatu darinya.
      Contoh:
    - chamois leather, chicken soup, cow leather, fox fur,  
    (d) menyatakan sesuatu sebagai tempat penyimpanan atau container.
      Contoh:
    - a matchbox, a tea cup, a milk bottle, a cigar box, a clothes closet
    (e) menyatakan sesuatu itu terbuat dari (made of)
      Contoh:
    - a gold watch, a silk dress, a silver necklace, a stone house
    - butter cookies, glasshouse, rice pudding
    (f) menyatakan ukuran  dimana angka digabungkan dengan kata benda pertama dengan menggunakan tanda sambung.
      Contoh:
    - a five-pound chicken,  a three-mile walk, a two-hour lesson,
    - a ten-minute talk, a two-day seminar
      Kita dapat mengatakan:
      Contoh:
    - a two-third(s) majority (pecahan)
    - a two-time(s) champion (menggunakan ‘time’)
    (g) menyatakan ukuran waktu (units of measurement).
      Contoh:
    - an evening dress, a morning call, a night flight, a Sunday paper
    (h) menyatakan seseorang melakukan apa atau sesuatu berfungsi sebagai apa.
      Contoh:
    - a football player, a language teacher, a weed-killer,  a woodcutter
    - bill-collectors, a match-maker,  a problem-solver, school-leavers
    (i) menyatakan  sesuatu itu ada dimana.
      Contoh:
    - the bathroom mirror, the kitchen cupboard
    (j) menyatakan bagian dari benda.
      Contoh:
    - a bottle cap, a computer keyboard, a hair pin  

    Kata benda  bentuk jamak tetap dalam bentuknya jika digunakan untuk menerangkan kata benda.        
    Contoh:
    a clothes shop, a communications network, a savings account, a spectacles case, customs duties

  • B.

    ADJECTIVE + NOUN

    Contoh: 

    common sense, a spoiled child, a new-born kitten, a heart-breaking news

  • C.

    POSSESSIVE NOUN + NOUN

    Contoh:

    traveler’s check, children’s clothes, cow’s milk, the earth’s gravity, a two hours’ journey

    Kadang-kadang tanda apostrophe s (’s) dihilangkan – a womens college

    Kita menggunakan tanda apostrophe s (’s) dengan arti berikut:

    (a) menyatakan bagian tubuh seseorang atau binatang
      Contoh:
    - an elephant’s trunk, a man’s leg
    (b) menyatakan sesuatu yang digunakan oleh
      Contoh:
    - a baby’s bottle, women’s magazine
    (c) menyatakan sesuatu diproduksi oleh
      Contoh:
    - cow’s milk, hen’s egg, lamb’s wool, sheep’s wool
    (d) menyatakan ukuran waktu
      Contoh:
    - a three hours’ delay, a two hours’ journey
    - today’s newspaper, yesterday’s news
  • D.

    NOUN + VERB

    Contoh: 

    a bloodshed, a handhold,  a handshake, a lifeguard, a milk shake, rearguard, a wage-freeze

  • E.

    VERB + NOUN

    Contoh:

    a cookbook, a drink-driver, a driveway, a flashlight, a hangman, a helpline, jump-leads, a keepsake, a pay-bed, a paymaster, a pay slip, a pickpocket, a playground, a runway, a scarecrow, a scaremonger, a spendthrift,
    a stopwatch, a tell-tale,  a troublemaker, a watchman, a workload

  • F.

    NOUN + GERUND

    Contoh:

    data-processing, life-saving, film-making, family-planning, food-poisoning, gossip-spreading, handwriting, housekeeping, risk-taking, storytelling, sunbathing

  • G.

    GERUND + NOUN

    Contoh: 

    breaking news, a dancing  hall, a fishing rod, a living-room, a killing field,
    a looking-glass, a singing contest, a racing car, a sleeping bag,
    a standing party,  a stepping-stone,  a  smoking area,  a swimming-pool,
    a waiting  room, working hours,  wearing apparel

  • H.

    NOUN + PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

    Contoh:

    a brother-in-law, a chief of staff, a commander-in-chief, an editor-in-chief, a lady-in-waiting, passers-by, stock-in-trade

  • I.

    PREPOSITION + NOUN

    Contoh:

    aftercare, afterthought, by-products, a by-road, bystander, a by-way, byword, a downfall, a downpour, a downturn, an off-cut, an off-day, an in-group, an in-joke, an overcoat, oversight, an undercurrent, an undergraduate        

  • J.

    VERB + PREPOSITION-ADVERB

    Contoh:

    a  blackout, a blow-up, a breakdown, a break-out,   a break through,  a  bypass, a change-over, a check-out, a comeback, a comedown, cutbacks,  
    a check-up, a die-hard, a drawback, a drop-out, a fall-out, a feedback,
    a  follow-up, the go-ahead, a grown-up, a hold-up,  lay-offs, a layout,  
    a lookout, make-up, an outcome, an outlet, a printout, a run-through,
    a sell-out, a setback, a set-up, a shakedown, a shake-up, a showdown,
    a shut-down, splashdown, sit-ins, stand-bys, a stopover, take-offs,
    a takeover, a tie-up, a turnover, an underground, a walk-out, a walkover, a wash-out, a write-off  

  • K.

    PREPOSITION + VERB

    Contoh:

    bypass, intake, offshoot, outbreak, outburst, outcome, outcry, outlay, outlet, outlook, upkeep, upsurge, uptake, upturn

  • L.

    NOUN + OF + NOUN

    (a)

    ‘noun’ yang pertama seperti: back, bottom, edge, end, front, inside, left, middle, outside, right, side, top                   

     

    Contoh:

    - the bottom of the page, the middle of the row

    (b)

    of digunakan untuk menyatakan sejumlah atau sejenis barang.

     

    Contoh:

    - a piece of meat, an army of soldiers, a crew of sailors
    - a type of metal, a species of beetle
    (c) Kelompok kata yang tidak dapat di susun dengan noun + noun
      Contoh:
    - a feeling of disgrace, the man of the year, signs of happiness
  • M.

    BENTUK JAMAK DARI COMPOUND NOUN

    (a) Bentuk jamak ditambahkan di akhir dari kata benda kedua.
      Contoh:
    office boys, bathrooms, sit-ins, take-offs, check-ups, breakdowns, push-ups, intakes, outcomes
    (b) Bentuk jamak ditambahkan di akhir kata benda pertama
      Contoh:
    passers-by, notaries public, fathers-in-law, runners-up, hangers-on
    (c) Bentuk jamak pada kedua kata benda, terutama jika bentuk jamak kata benda pertama adalah kata jamak yang tidak teratur (irregular).
      Contoh:
    women teachers, menservants
22.

COMPOUND ADJECTIVES

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  • A.

    ADJECTIVE + NOUN + ED

    Contoh:

    absent-minded, bald-headed, bloody-minded (refusing to be helpful in a deliberately manner), broad-minded, broken-hearted, cold-blooded, flat-footed,  four-legged, good-tempered, ill-planned, kind-hearted, left-handed, open-toed, quick-witted, red-eyed, short-sighted, short-listed, short-lived, sun-tanned,

  • B.

    ADJECTIVE + ADJECTIVE

    Contoh:

    blue-green, brand-new, deep-red silk, gray-green, icy-cold water, shocking-pink

  • C.

    ADJECTIVE/ADVERB + ING PARTICIPLE

    Contoh: 

    an easy- going young man, long-lasting materials, long-suffering patient, long-standing friendship, good-looking men, nice-lookingwomen, a never-ending story, tight-fitting jeans        

  • D.

    ADJECTIVE/ADVERB/NOUN + THE PAST PARTICIPLE

    Contoh:

    - adjective + past participle:
      kind-hearted, little-known, most-advanced, ready-made
    - adverb + past participle:
      just-arrived, much-travelled/traveled, newly-made, seriously-injured, terribly-cold, well-educated, well-known
    - noun + past participle:
      air-conditioned, bed-ridden, bottle-fed, breast-fed, hand-made, henpecked, horse-pulled, life-sized, remote-controlled, smoke-filled, so-called, steam-driven, sun-burnt, wind-blown         
  • E.

    THE PAST PARTICIPLE + PREPOSITION

    Contoh:

    an all-out strike, a broken-down car, a burned-out house, a built-up area, cast-off clothes, a drive-in movie, hands-on experience, hands-off approach, a hard-up student, a run-down area, a turned-up nose, a well-off family, worn-out shoes,

  • F.

    NOUN + ING PARTICIPLE

    Contoh:

    ear-piercing music, English-speaking people, a hard working worker, heartbreaking news, a heart-warming tale, labour/labor-saving policy, law-abidingcitizens, meat-eating animals, peace-loving people, thought-provoking speech, time-consuming work,record-breaking run

  • G.

    CARDINAL NUMBER + MEASUREMENT OF TIME, DISTANCE, AGE, HEIGHT, WIDTH, ET CETERA + ADJECTIVE

    Contoh:

    a six-feet-deeper well, a six-year-old boy, a two-metre/meter-high wall
    ‘adjective’ yang demikian dapat juga mengikuti kata benda yang diterangkan:
    a boy six year old, a wall two metre/meter high

  • H.

    NOUN + ADJECTIVE

    Contoh:

    airsick, breast-high, duty-free, homesick, interest-free, seasick, skin-deep, snow-white, stone-dead, sugar-free, world-famous

  • I.

    CARDINAL NUMBER + NOUN

    Contoh:

    a four-engine aircraft, a six-lane motorway, a two-piston engine,
    a two-storey/story building

     

  • J.

    ORDINAL NUMBER

    Contoh:

    a first-class performance, a second-hand car, a second-rated school

  • K.

    COMPOUND ADJECTIVE YANG MENGANDUNG PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

    Contoh:

    behind-the-scenes negotiations, day-to-day work, good-for-nothing persons, fly-by-night flights, hand-to-mouth existence, a head-in-the-sand attitude, off-peak holiday prices, out-of-date clothes, on-stage performances, up-to-date news, on-the-job training, an on-the-move attitude, an out-of-the-way village

  • L.

    COMPOUND ADJECTIVE YANG MENGANDUNG INFINITIVE

    Contoh:

    easy-to-get money,  hard-to-please boys, never-to-be-forgotten film stars, difficult-to-learn books,  impossible-to-accomplish tasks, ready-to-wear clothes, a shoot-to-kill policy, well-to-do men

  • M.

    COMPOUND ADJECTIVE YANG MENGANDUNG CONJUNCTION 'AND'

    Contoh:

    dark-and-dirty rooms, a hit-and-run businessman, a learn-and-play game, a life-and-death fight, live-and-let-live attitude, a meet-and-greet session, mysterious-and-thrilling story,  a red-and-white flag, an up-and-coming young writer

  • N.

    COMPOUND ADJECTIVE YANG BERASAL DARI COMPOUND NOUN (NOUN-NOUN)

    Contoh:

    a big-stomach man, a Jakarta-Semarang train,  a last-minute warning, a part-time job, a primary-school student,   a topsecret story, a wrought-iron railing

  • O.

    COMPOUND ADJECTIVE YANG BERUPA GABUNGAN KATA YANG DICIPTAKAN UNTUK MENUNJUKKAN ARTI TERTENTU (COINED WORDS)

    Contoh:

    come-and-get-me look, a do-it-yourself shop, a happy-go-lucky person, a get-rich-quick scheme, a get-tough policy      

  • P.

    BERIKUT ADALAH AWALAN, ALHIRAN DAN KATA YANG DAPAT DIGUNAKAN UNTUK MEMBENTUK COMPOUND ADJECTIVES

    all-

    entirely (seluruh) (all-American food, all-electric kitchen, all-important, all-outall, powerful )

    anti-

    defending against (anti-aircraft, anti-personnel)

    -bodied

    having a body of a specified kind (able-bodied, big-bodied, full-bodied, strong-bodied)

    -boned 

    having a bone of a specified kind (large-boned, small-boned)

    -born

    having from birth specified qualities (first-born, French-born, nobly-born)

    -bound

     intending to go (Jakarta-bound, northbound)

    cross- 

    extending or moving across (cross-country, cross-cultural)

    edged- 

    having an edge or edges of a specified type (blunt-edged, lace-edged, sharp-edged)

    extra

    to an exceptional degree, outside of; in addition to (extra-marital, extra-thin)

    -fired

    → 

    supplied by or using a specific fuel (coal-fired, gas-fired)

    -free

    without, free from, having no charge (duty-free, fat-free, interest-free, rent-free)

    -friendly

    having or of benefit to (environment-friendly, user-friendly)

    ill-

    badly, wrongly (ill-concealed, ill-advised, ill-informed)

    intra-

    → 

    inside, within (intravenous, intra-uterine)

    -legged

    having legs of the specified number (one-legged, two-legged)

    -like

    → 

    similar to (childlike, ladylike)

    -led

    planned, controlled or influenced by a specific person or thing (market-led economy, president-led country)

    -leaved

    having leaves of the specified type or number (a broad-leaved plant)

    -length

    having length up to (shoulder-length hair, a knee-length skirt, a floor-length curtain)

    -made

    manufactured, created, constructed by (factory-made, man-made, tailor-made)

    -mannered

    behaving in the specified way (well-mannered)

    post-

    after (a post-cold war, the post-1970 period))

    pre-

    before (pre-high, pre-intermediate, pre-school)

    pro-

    supporting (pro-abortion, pro-civil, pro-government)

    -roofed

    having a roof of a specified kind or colour (green-roofed)

    self-

    → 

    to/of or by oneself or itself (self-absorbed, self-explanatory, self-controlled, self-serviced)

    semi-

    half or partly (semicircular, semi-detached)

    -sexed

    having the specified amount of sexual desire (over-sexed)

    -shy

    avoiding, not liking, afraid of the thing specified (camera-shy, gun-shy, work-shy)

    -sick

    feeling sick due to travelling/traveling or longing for the specified place (airsick, homesick, seasick, travel-sick)

    -sided

    having sides of the specified number or type (one-sided, many-sided, steep-sided, two-sided)

    -sized

    having the specified size (equal-sized, handy-sized, medium-sized, pocked-sized)

    -skinned

    → 

    having skin of a specified kind (dark-skinned, light-skinned)

    -some

    → 

    producing (awesome, burdensome, fearsome, quarrelsome) a group of the specified number (foursome, fivesome)

    supra-

    (1)

    above, beyond, going beyond the normal limits (supranational)
        (2) super (supraorbital)

    ultra-

    (1)

    extremely, excessively (ultra-cautious, ultramarine, ultra-modern)
        (2) beyond a specified limit  (ultrasound, ultrasonic, ultrahigh)

    under-

    (1)

    not enough (undercooked, under-developed, undermanned, undernourished, under-ripe)
       

    (2)

    below (underground, underwater, underweight)

    uni-

    having or consisting of one, single (unicellular, uniform, unilateral, unisex)

    -ward in the direction of (backward, eastward, homeward)
    well- in a good or satisfactory way (well-prepared, well-preserved)
     -wise in the position or direction of (anti-clockwise, clockwise)
23.

COMPOUND VERBS

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  • PREFACE

    ‘compound verbs’ adalah gabungan beberapa kata yang berfungsi sebagai kata kerja.

  • CARA MEMBENTUK COMPOUND VERBS:

    (1)

    noun + verb

      Contoh:
    baby-sit - take care of the children in their home while their parents are not there
    backbite - say bad or mean things about someone as one is not present
    browbeat - frighten or threaten somebody in order to make them do it
    counter-attack - attack someone who has just attacked you in a war, a game
    earmark - decide to use something, especially money, for a particular purpose
    housekeep - perform the routine duties (as cooking, cleaning) of managing a house
    house-sit - live in someone’s house in order to take care of it while the owner is away
    skyjack - hijack a plane
    waylay - stop someone who is going somewhere, especially to trouble them or harm them

    (2)

    adjective + verb

      Contoh:
    foretell - say what will happen in the future
    fulfil/fulfill - do what you must do for example as part of a job
    ill-use - treat someone in an unfair or unkind way
    safe-guard - keep somebody or something safe
    soundproof  - make a room or other space soundproof
    streamline - improve a business, arganisation/organization, process by making it more modern or simple
    whitewash  - try to hide unpleasant fact about somebody or something

    (3)

    adverb/preposition + verb

      Contoh:
    backfill - fill a hole with material which has been dug out of it
    overdo - do, say or use more of something than you should
    overhear - hear what other people are saying during a conversation which you are not involved in
    overthrow - force a government or a leader to be out of their position
    overtake - become better than another person
    undertake - agree to be responsible for a job or project and do it
    undergo - experience something that is unpleasant but necessary
    upset - make someone feel upset, worried or angry
    (4) verb + verb
      Contoh:    
    cross-examine - ask a witness questions during a trial after another lawyer has already asked his questions    
    cross-hatch - mark with two series of parallel lines that intersect
    cross-check - check that information is correct by checking it again using a different method
    kick-start - start a motorbike by kicking a lever with your foot
    lam-dunk - jump up and put the ball in the net with force
    type-write - type
24.

MORE ON INDIRECT SPEECH

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  • A.

    UNCHANGED TENSES

    (1) ‘tense’ tidak mengalami perubahan jika kita menyatakan suatu kejadian sebagai sejarah.
      Contoh:
    (a) ‘Indonesia got her independence in 1945,’ he said.
      He said that Indonesia got her independence in 1945.
    (b) ‘The airplane was invented in the twentieth century,’ she said.
      She said that the airplane was invented in the twentieth century.
    (2) ‘tense’ tidak mengalami perubahan jika kita menyatakan suatu tradisi atau kebiasaan di masa lampau.
      Contoh:
    (a) ‘I always took the bus to school,’ he said.
      He said that he always took the bus to school.
    (b) ‘She wanted to be left alone whenever she was sad,’ her mother said.
      Her mother said that she wanted to be left alone whenever she was sad.
    (3) ‘tense’ tidak mengalami perubahan jika kalimat menyatakan suatu kondisi yang tidak sesuai dengan kenyataan atau yang tidak mungkin terjadi.
      Contoh:
    (a) ‘If I were the President, I would build more houses,’ He said.
      He said that if he were the President, he would build more houses.
    (b) ‘If he were rich, he would travel (a)round the world,’ His friend said.
      His friend said that if he were rich, he would travel (a)round the world.
    (4) ‘tense’ tidak mengalami perubahan jika kalimat mengandung ‘time clause’.
      Contoh:
    (a) ‘I was watching TV when the telephone rang,’ he said.
      He said that he was watching TV when the telephone rang.
    (b) ‘While I was talking to the teacher, he interrupted,’ she said.
      She said that while she was talking to the teacher, he interrupted.

    Perubahan penunjuk waktu dan tempat dari ‘direct speech’ ke ‘indirect speech’

    Direct Speech | Indirect Speech
    (1) this         | that
    (2) these | those
    (3) now | then
    (4) ago | before
    (5) last night | the previous night, the night before
    (6) the next day | the following day, the day after
    (7) today | that day
    (8) yesterday | the previous day, the day before
    (9) tomorrow | the following day, the day after, the next day
    (10) here | there
    (11) just | then
    (12) the day before yesterday | the day before the previous day, two days before
    (13) the day after tomorrow | the day after the next day, in two days
  • B.

    CHANGING INDIRECT SPEECH TO DIRECT SPEECH

    (1)

     ‘exclamatory direct speech’ berubah menjadi ‘exclamatory indirect speech’ dengan menggunakan: exclaimed with wonder/ gratefulness/ joy/ regret/ sorrow/ surprise/ disappointment/ happiness/ fear/ pain/ curse.    
     Dalam kalimat ‘exclamatory indirect speech’, kata-kata what dan how dihilangkan dan diganti dengan that.

      Contoh:
    (a) ‘What a good idea it is!’ he said.
      He exclaimed with wonder that it is really a good idea.
    (b) ‘How kind of you to say so!’ she said.
      She exclaimed with gratefulness that I was very kind to say so.
    (c) ‘How stupid I am to believe her words!’ I said.
      I exclaimed with regre that I was indeed stupid to believe her words.

    (2)

    ‘direct greetings’ berubah menjadi ‘indirect greetings’

      Contoh:
    (a) ‘Wish you a Happy New Year,’ he said to me.
      He wished me a Happy New Year.
    (b) ‘Congratulations! You passed the test,’ he said to me.
      He congratulated me on my passing the test.
    (3)

    ‘request sentences’ berubah menjadi to + infinitive

      Contoh:
    (a) ‘Can you help me?’ she said to me.
      She requested me to help her.
    (b) ‘Would you type this letter?’ she said to me.
      She requested me to type that letter.
    (4)

    ‘let’s’ berubah menjadi suggest + gerund/that clause atau propose + to infinitive/that clause/gerund

      Contoh:
    (a) ‘Let’s have a talk,’ he said to me.
    - He suggested having a talk.
    - He suggested that we should have a talk.
    - He proposed to have a talk.
    (b) ‘Let’s do it,’ he said to her.
    - He suggested doing it.
    - He suggested that they should do it.
    - He proposed to do it.
    (c) ‘Let’s not go swimming.’ he said to her.
    - He suggested not going swimming.
    - He suggested that we should not go swimming.
    - He proposed not to go swimming.
    (5) ‘conditional sentences’ yang dimulai dengan If I were you,… berubah menjadi advise someone to.
      Contoh:
    (a) ‘If I were you, I would come on time,’ I said to him.
      I advised him to come on time.
    (b) ‘If I were you, I would not do it,’ I said to her.
      I advised her not to do it.
  • C.

    QUESTION WORDS 'WHO, WHAT, WHICH' USED TO REPLACE SUBJECT REMAIN UNCHANGED

    Contoh:

    (a) ‘Who came?’ he asked me.
      He asked me who came.
    (b) ‘What happened?’ he asked me.
      He asked me what happened.
    (c) ‘Which boy came late?’ he asked me.
      He asked me which boy came late.
  • D.

    'THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE' IS CHANGED TO 'THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE'.

    Dalam ‘indirect speech’ ‘the past continuous tense’ biasanya berubah menjadi the past perfect continuous tense jika kita merasa bahwa kegiatan atau kejadian tersebut baru saja selesai. Jika perbuatan itu belum selesai, maka kita tetap menggunakan the past continuous tense tanpa perubahan tense.

    Contoh:
    ‘the past continuous’ berubah menjadi the past perfect continuous tense‘
    He said, ‘I was thinking of moving out, but I have decided to postpone  it.’
    He said that he had been thinking of moving out, but he had decided to postpone it.

    Contoh:
    the past continuous tense tidak mengalami perubahan
    (kegiatan masih berlangsung).
    He said, ‘When I saw her, she was swimming.’
    He said that when he saw her, she was swimming. 

  • E.

    IMPERATIVE INDIRECT SPEECH

    Contoh: 

    (a) ‘Meet me in my office,’ he says.
      He says that we are to meet him in his office.
      He tells us to meet him in his office. (tidak biasanya hal ini terjadi)
    (b) ‘Don’t open the door,’ he said.
      He told me not to open the door.
      He said that I was not to open the door.
    (c) ‘Don’t be stupid,’ he said.
      He told me not to be stupid.
      He said that I was not to be stupid.
  • F.

    OTHER CONSTRUCTIONS OF INDIRECT SPEECH

    Contoh:

    (a) ‘You’d better wear a jacket,’ she said.
      She advised me to wear a jacket.
    (b) You’d better not wear a jacket,” she said.
      She warned him not to wear a jacket.
    (c) ‘Please don’t do it,’ she said.
      She begged him not to do it.
    (d) ‘Please remember to post the letter,’ she said.
      She reminded him to post the letter.
25.

MORE ON PASSIVE SENTENCES

26.

DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF NOUNS

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  • A.

    Akhiran yang mengubah ‘verbs’ menjadi ‘nouns’
    (1) Akhiran yang menyatakan ‘the state of’ Akhiran tersebut adalah -ing, -age, -al, -ance, -ence, -(e)ry, -ment, -tion, -sion, -t, -ure, -th.

    (1)

    Akhiran yang menyatakan ‘the state of’
    Akhiran tersebut adalah -ing, -age, -al, -ance, -ence, -(e)ry, -ment, -tion, -sion, -t, -ure, -th.

     

    Contoh:

    (a)

    Akhiran –ing

      begin → beginning, brief → briefing, clean → cleaning, end → ending, 
    market → marketing, meet → meeting, talk → talking, teach → teaching

    (b)

    Akhiran -age

      break → breakage, carry → carriage, cover → coverage,
    leak → leakage, link → linkage, marry → marriage , store → storage,
    waste → wastage

    (c)

    Akhiran -al

      appraise → appraisal, approve → approval, arrive → arrival,
    bury →      burial, deny → denial, dismiss → dismissal,
    dispose → disposal, propose → proposal, recite → recital,
    refuse → refusal, rehearse  →  rehearsal,  remove → removal,
    renew → renewal, survive → survival, try → trial,
    withdraw  →  withdrawal

    (d)

    Akhiran -ance, -ence

      accept → acceptance, appear → appearance, assist → assistance,
    confide      → confidence, enter → entrance, insure → insurance,
    perform → performance, remember → remembrance

     (e)

    Akhiran -ery

      rob → robbery, bribe → bribery, hatch → hatchery, deliver → delivery,
    forge → forgery, expire → expiry, recover → recovery, rival → rivalry,
    bake → bakery, slip → slippery, injure → injury, inquire → inquiry,
    discover → discovery, flatter → flattery

     (f)

    Akhiran -ment

      engage → engagement, achieve → achievement,
    commit → commitment, advertise → advertisement,
    entertain → entertainment, assess → assessment, agree → agreement,
    develop → development
    (g) Akhiran -ion, -(i)tion, - ation, -sion, -xion,       
      act → action, add → addition, attend → attention, attract → attraction,
    confess → confession, consider → consideration,
    hesitate → hesitation, impress → impression, nominate → nomination,
    organise/organize → organisation/organization  
    (h) Akhiran -(h)t,    
      contain → contents, draw → draft, fly → flight, give → gift,
    produce → product, pursue → pursuit,     receive → receipt,
    see → sight, sit → seat, think → thought, weigh → weight
    (i) Akhiran -ure
      depart → departure, close → closure, expose → exposure,
    mix → mixture, please → pleasure, seize → seizure
    (j) Akhiran -th,
      bathe → bath, bear → birth, breathe → breath, die → death,
    grow → growth, heal → health, steal → stealth
    (k) Perubahan dari ‘-ve’ menjadi ‘-fe’ atau ‘-f’ 
      believe → belief, grieve → grief, live → life, prove → proof,
    relieve → relief, strive → strife
    (l) Akhiran -eed menjadi -ess
      exceed → excess, proceed → process, succeed → success

    Beberapa perubahan kata kerja menjadi kata benda lainnya:
    break → breach, choose → choice, do → deed, feed → food, hate → hatred,
    know → knowledge, laugh → laughter,  lend → loan,  live → life,  lose → loss,
    sell → sale,  shake → shock, see → sight, sings → song, slay → slaughter,
    speak → speech, strike → stroke, tell → tale, weave → web 

  • Akhiran yang mengubah ‘verbs’ menjadi ‘nouns’
    (2) Akhiran yang menyatakan a person who… -s or is… -ed, atau a person who is active in …, atau a person who comes from…, a person who is concerned/

    Akhiran tersebut adalah -ant, -ent, -er, -or, -eer, -(i)an, -eon, -ean, -arian, -ist, -ee, -ard, -our/-eur, -man, -master,-maid. 

    (a)

    Akhiran -ant, -ent

      assail → assailant, assist → assistant, consult → consultant,
    inhabit →  inhabitant,  participate → participant, receive → recipient,
    reside → resident, serve → servant,  study → student, tenant → tenant

    (b)

    Akhiran -er

      advise → adviser, astronomy → astronomer, care → carer,
    carpentry → carpenter, compose → composer, dance → dancer,
    message → messenger, pain → painter, philosophy→ philosopher,
    play → player, sing → singer, write → writer, work → worker

    (c)

    Akhiran -or

      act → actor, capture → captor, collect → collector,
    conquer → conqueror, counsel → counsellor, invent → inventor,
    govern → governor, sail → sailor, visit → visitor

    (d)

    Akhiran -ian

      electricity → electrician, history → historian, library → librarian,
    music → musician, optics → optician, pediatrics → pediatrician,
    politics → politician, vegetables → vegetarian,
    veterinary → veterinarian

    (e)

    Akhiran -ist
      biology → biologist, chemistry → chemist, dentistry → dentist,
    drugs → druggist, education → educationist, guitar → guitarist,
    journalism → journalist, piano → pianist, specialty → specialist,
    style → stylist, tour → tourist, typing → typist, violin → violinist

    (f)

     Akhiran  -ee

      absent → absentee, employ → employee, escape → escapee,
    interview → interviewee, lease → lessee, nominate → nominee,
    pay → payee, refuse → refugee, train → trainee, trust → trustee

    (g)

    Akhiran -man        

      business → businessman, camera → cameraman, chair → chairman,
    crew → crewman, fish → fisherman, hunt → huntsman,
    milk → milkman, newspaper → newspaperman, post → postman,
    sales → salesman, sea → seaman, sport → sportsman

    (h)

    Akhiran -ard

      coward, dullard, drunkard, niggard, sluggard

    (i)

    Akhiran -ate

      advocate, curate, magnate

    (j)

     Akhiran -ain

      captain, chaplain, chieftain, villain

    (k)

    Akhiran -ster

      songster, spinster, trickster, youngster
    (l)  Akhiran -ter
      brother, daughter, father, mother, sister
    (m) Akhiran -ary
      dignitary, missionary, secretary
    (n) Akhiran -our, -eur
      amateur, chauffeur, connoisseur, masseur, saviour, voyeur
    (o) Akhiran -on
      champion, chaperon(e), companion, surgeon
    (p) Akhiran -master, -maid
      choirmaster, headmaster, housemaid

    Akhiran -er digunakan untuk menyatakan alat
    Contoh:
    bumper, camcorder, carrier, charger, chopper, recorder, record-player, sticker

  • Akhiran yang mengubah ‘verbs’ menjadi ‘nouns’
    (3) Akhiran -ing yang menyatakan kegiatan dari …. Kata benda -ing biasanya digunakan untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang berhubungan dengan rekreasi atau pekerjaan.

    Contoh: engineering, fishing, hiking, shopping, swimming.
    Kata benda yang demikian juga mempunyai bentuk jamak seperti blessings, weddings dan juga dapat diterangkan oleh adjective seperti a good blessing, an excellent shooting.

  • B.

    Akhiran yang membedakan ‘noun’ dari ‘verb’

    Contoh: 

    advise → advice, believe → belief, deceive → deceit, defend → defense,
    live → life, prove → proof, receive → receipt, relieve → relief

  • C.

    Akhiran yang mengubah ‘adjective’ dan menyatakan keadaan: -(i)ty, -ness, -th, -dom, -ce, -age, -ry

    Contoh:

    (a)

    Akhiran -(i)ty

     

    active → activity, certain → certainty, creative → creativity,
    cruel → cruelty, equal → equality, honest → honesty, odd → oddity,
    poor → poverty, pure → purity, responsible → responsibility,
    safe → safety, sensual → sensuality, sincere → sincerity,
    stupid → stupidity

    (b)

    Akhiran -ness

      empty → emptiness, happy → happiness, lazy → laziness,
    lonely → loneliness, mad → madness, polite → politeness,
    sad → sadness, strange → strangeness, sweet → sweetness
    (c) Akhiran  -th
      strong → strength, warm → warmth, broad → breadth,
    deep → depth,     long → length, true → truth, wide → width,
    young → youth
    (d) Akhiran -ce
      coward → cowardice, just → justice
    (e) Akhiran -dom  
      bored → boredom, free → freedom, wise → wisdom
  • D.

    Akhiran yang membedakan kata benda (berakhiran -ance, -ence) dari kata sifat (berakhiran -ant, -ent)

    Contoh: 

    brilliant → brilliance, relevant → relevance, distant → distance,
    intelligent → intelligence

  • E.

    Akhiran yang mengubah ‘concrete noun’ (kata benda konkrit) menjadi ‘abstract noun’ (kata benda abstrak) seperti: -hood, -ism, ship

    Contoh:

    (a)  Akhiran -hoodchild
      baby → babyhood, boy → boyhood, brother → brotherhood,
    child → childhood, girl → girlhood, life → livelihood, man → manhood,
    mother → motherhood, neighbour → neighbourhood, priest → priesthood
    (b) Akhiran -ism
      Buddha → Buddhism, colony → colonialism,  fanatic → fanaticism,
    favourite → favouritism, hero → heroism, individual → individualism,
    symbol → symbolism, journal → journalism, material → materialism,
    military → militarism
    (c) Akhiran -ship
      champion → championship, companion → companionship,
    fellow → fellowship, friend → friendship, hard → hardship,
    leader → leadership, owner → ownership, relation → relationship,
    salesman → salesmanship, sponsor → sponsorship, ward → wardship
    (a) ‘-ism’ dapat juga merubah kata kerja yang berakhiran -ise/-ize menjadi kata  benda seperti criticize → criticism.
    (b) ‘-ism’ digunakan dengan kata benda dengan arti praktek dari sesuatu yang dirasakan kurang baik sexism, racism.
    (c) ‘-ism’ digunakan dalam ilmu kedokteran untuk menyatakan suatu penyakit seperti alcoholism.
  • F.

    Akhiran yang mengubah ‘noun’ menjadi ‘noun’ lainnya yang menunjukkan suatu aliran, teori, doktrin atau kepercayaan (-ism) dan penganut kepercayaan itu sendiri (-ist)

    Contoh:

    atheism → atheist, capitalism → capitalist, communism → communist,
    idealism → idealist, realism → realist, socialism → socialist

  • G.

    Akhiran -ess yang membedakan jenis kelamin wanita

    Contoh:

    actor → actress, god → goddess, host → hostess,
    headmaster →  headmistress, lion → lioness, prince → princess
    sorcerer → sorceress, steward → stewardess, tiger → tigress 
    waiter → waitress

  • H.

    ‘nouns’ yang berbentuk sama dengan ‘verbs’

    Contoh:

    answer, control, dance, defeat, discount, doubt, drink, fight, honour/honor, influence, jump, load, mistake, outline, profit, quarrel, question, reply, request, sin

  • I.

    ‘nouns’ yang berbentuk sama dengan ‘adjectives’

    Contoh: 

    average, elastic, equal, ideal, individual, material, native, principal, public, secret, square, standard

27.

DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF VERBS AND ADVERBS

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  • A.

    DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF VERBS
    (1)    Akhiran yang menunjukkan kata kerja adalah -en, -ize, -fy, -ate dan
                awalan en-, be-, -e, -ite, -se/-ze, -ish

    Contoh:

    (a) Akhiran -en  (adjective + -en menjadi verb)
      blacken, brighten, broaden, burden, darken, deepen, enlighten, enliven, fasten, fatten, flatten, frighten, gladden, harden, hasten, hearten, lengthen, lessen, lighten, loosen, quicken, sadden, sharpen, shorten, sicken, smoothen, soften, strengthen, sweeten, thicken, threaten, tighten, widen
    (b) Awalan en- (en- + noun menjadi verb)
      enable, encage, encamp, encircle, encounter, encourage, endanger, enforce, enjoy, enlarge, enlist, ennoble, enrich, enroll, enslave, enslave, ensure, enthrone, entomb
    (c) Akhiran -ize (British/American English),  -ise (juga British English)
      apologize, authorize, colonize criticize, economize, emphasize, equalize, fertilize, formalize, generalize, harmonize, idolize, jeopardize, liquidize, memorize, minimize, monopolize, organize, paralyze, penalize, personalize, recognize, standardize, sterilize, summarize, symbolize, sympathize, terrorize, utilize
    (d) Akhiran -fy
      beautify, clarify, classify, exemplify, fortify, fructify, glorify, gratify, horrify, justify, magnify, modify,  purify, qualify, rectify, satisfy, signify, simplify, specify, terrify, testify
    (e) Akhiran -ate
      accumulate, activate, calculate, captivate, compensate, create, decorate, designate, dictate, dominate, elaborate, eliminate, escalate, exaggerate, fluctuate, gesticulate, hyphenate, nominate, penetrate, perpetrate, perpetuate, recuperate
    (f) Awalan be-
      become, bedeck, bedevil, befriend, befall, befit, behead, behold, belabor, belittle, berate, beseech, beset, besiege, besmirch, bestir, bestow, betray, beware, bewail, bewitch
    (g) Awalan em-
      embattle, embitter, embody, embrace, embroil, emerge, empower
    (h) Akhiran -ite
      bite, cite, excite, expedite, invite, recite, smite, spite, write
    (i) Akhiran -se
      browse, bulldoze, cause, chase, choose, cleanse, close, collapse, compose, confuse, curse, defuse, disburse, dispense, disperse, dispose, disguise, doze, refuse, reimburse, rinse, suppose            
    (j) Akhiran -ish
      banish, burnish, cherish, demolish, diminish, distinguish, establish, nourish, polish, publish, punish, refurbish, refurnish, relish
    (k) Akhiran -er
      chatter, flatter, fritter, glimmer, glitter, hammer, shatter, shimmer, shiver, slaughter, slither, slobber, smolder, smother, sneer, splatter, suffer, swelter,  thunder, titter
  • DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF VERBS
    (2)    ‘verb’ yang mempunyai bentuk yang sama dengan kata benda

    Contoh:

    desire → to desire, an answer → to answer, a reply → to reply,
    doubt → to doubt, a request → to request, control → to control
    Kata kerja biasanya mendapat tekanan pada konsonan final, sedangkan kata benda pada konsonan awal.

  • BEBERAPA AKAR KATA YANG MENCERMINKAN KATA KERJA

    -duce (lead, bring), -duct, -ceive, -mit, -tend, -sist, -clude (close), -ceed
    (go, move), -dict, -press, -rupt, -cribe/-cript, -solve, -volve, -tract, -vene

    (1) -duce, duct mempunyai arti lead, bring
      abduct, conduct, deduce,  , deduct, induce, introduce, produce, reduce
    (2) -ceive
      conceive, deceive, perceive, receive
    (3) -mit mempunyai arti send
      admit, commit, delimit, emit, limit, omit, permit, remit, submit, transmit
    (4) -tend mempunyai arti stretch
      distend, intend, pretend, tend
    (5) -sist mempunyai arti stand
      assist, consist, desist, insist, persist, resist
    (6) -ceed, -ced mempunyai arti go, move, yield
      accede, concede, exceed, intercede, precede, proceed, recede, succeed
    (7) -dict mempunyai arti speak, say
      contradict, dictate, predict
    (8) -press mempunyai arti press
      compress, depress, express, impress, oppress, press, repress, suppress
    (9) -rupt mempunyai arti break
      abrupt, corrupt, disrupt, erupt, interrupt, irrupt
    (10) -scribe, -script mempunyai arti write
      conscript, describe, inscribe, prescribe, proscribe, script, subscribe
    (11) -solve mempunyai arti loosen
      absolve, dissolve, resolve, solve
    (12) -volve mempunyai arti roll, turn around
      devolve, evolve, involve, revolve
    (13) -tract mempunyai arti pull
      attract, contract, detract, distract, extract, protract, retract
    (14) -vene, -vent mempunyai arti come
      contravene, convene, intervene, invent, prevent
    (15) -clude mempunyai arti close, shut in
      conclude, delude, exclude, elude, include, preclude
    (16) -fer
      confer, differ, infer, interfere, prefer, refer, suffer, transfer  
    (17) -ect
      collect, deflect, elect, genuflect, reflect, select
    (18) -ject mempunyai arti throw
      abject, eject, deject, interject, object, project, reject, subject
  • B.

    DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF ADVERBS
    (1)    ‘adverbs’ yang berasal dari adjective dengan menambahkan -ly

    Contoh akhiran -ly

    easy → easily, diligent → diligently, beautiful → beautifully,
    quick → quickly, stupid → stupidly, sudden → suddenly

  • DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF ADVERBS
    (2) ‘adverbs’ yang berbentuk sama dengan adjective yang berakhiran -ly

    Contoh adjective/adverb

    daily, early, monthly, weekly, yearly

  • DERIVATIONAL FORMS ADVERBS
    (3) Akhiran -ingly and -edly

    advisedly, amazingly, decidedly, dedicatedly, interestingly, surprisingly, unexpectedly

  • DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF ADVERBS
    (4) Akhiran -ward(s) (in the direction of), -wise (in the manner or direction of)

    (a) Contoh Akhiran -ward(s):
      afterward(s), backward(s), downward(s), earthward(s), forward(s), frontward(s), homeward(s), onward(s), outward(s), southward(s)
    (b) Contoh Akhiran -wise:
      lengthwise, otherwise, clockwise, counterclockwise, anticlockwise
    (a) Akhiran -ward adalah British English, sedangkan wards adalah America English.
    (b) ‘wise’ dapat ditambahkan di depan kata benda untuk membentuk adverb baru. ‘wise’ di sini mempunyai arti with reference to / in connection with. Penggunaan yang demikian adalah penggunaan yang tidak formal dan sebaiknya dihindari.
      Contoh: businesswise, weatherwise, saleswise, timewise
  • DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF ADVERBS
    (5) Kata -where, -place dan -ever yang ditambahkan pada kata lain

    Contoh:
    anyplace, anywhere, elsewhere, forever,  however, nowhere, someplace, somewhere, whatever, whenever,  whereabouts, whereby, wherever

  • DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF ADVERBS
    (6) Awalan a- yang biasanya ditambahkan pada benda menunjukkan bahwa kata tersebut adalah adverb

    Contoh:
    above, across, afield, afresh, aground, ahead, aloft, along, alongside, aloud, apart, around, aside, away

  • DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF AND ADVERBS
    (7) Akhiran -wide

    Contoh: nationwide, worldwide

  • DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF ADVERBS
    (8) Akhiran -way

    Contoh: highway, railway, waterway

28.

DERIVATIONAL FORMS OF ADJECTIVES

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  • A.

    AKHIRAN YANG MENGUBAH 'NOUNS' MENJADI ADJECTIVES

    Contoh:

    (1) Akhiran -(i)al
      accident → accidental, ancestor → ancestral, angel → angelic,
    centre/center → central, ceremony → ceremonial, face → facial,
    hysteria → hysterical, nation → national, nature → natural,
    occasion → occasional, parent → parental, person → personal
    (2) Akhiran -ar
      angle → angular, circle → circular, family → familiar, island → islandar,
    joke → jocular, molecule → molecular, muscle → muscular,
    people → popular, rectangle → rectangular, single → singular,
    table → tabular, triangle → triangular
    (3) Akhiran -ary, -ery
      budget → budgetary, comment → commentary, custom → customary,
    moment → momentary, money → monetary, planet → planetary,
    reaction → reactionary, revolution → revolutionary, volunteer → voluntary,  
    (4) Akhiran -ed
      bear → bearded,  colour → coloured, culture → cultured,
    disease → diseased, talent → talented
    (5) Akhiran -less
      end → endless, father → fatherless, fault → faultless, fear → fearless,
    friend → friendless, home → homeless, hope → hopeless, love → loveless,
    mercy → merciless, pain → painless, power → powerless,
    shame → shameless, tooth → toothless, use → useless
    (6) Akhiran -ful
      awe → awful, beauty → beautiful, pain → painful, care → careful,
    cheer → cheerful, faith → faithful, harm → harmful, help → helpful,
    hope → hopeful, joy → joyful, pity → pitiful, respect → respectful,
    skill → skilful, sorrow → sorrowful,  meaning → meaningful,
    peace → peaceful, sin → sinful, waste → wasteful
    (7) Akhiran -en
      earth → earthen, gold → golden, oak → oaken, silk → silken,
    wool → woolen, wood → wooden
    (8) Akhiran -esque
      picture  → picturesque, statue → statuesque
    (9) Akhiran -ic(al)
      atmosphere → atmospheric, hero → heroic, number  → numerical,
    science → scientific, sympathy → sympathetic, system → systematic,
    (10) Akhiran -ish
      ape → apish, baby → babyish, book → bookish, boy → boyish,
    child → childish, fool → foolish, girl → girlish, self → selfish,
    slave → slavish, style → stylish
    (11) Akhiran -like
      animal → animalike, child → childlike, lady → ladylike, shell → shell like, snake → snakelike, war → warlike
    (12) Akhiran -ly
      cost → costly, coward → cowardly, day → daily, earth → earthly,
    father → fatherly, friend → friendly, home → homely, hour → hourly,
    life → lively, love → lovely, man → manly, mother → motherly,
    neighbour → neighbourly, oil → oily, time → timely, year → yearly
    (13) Akhiran -ous
      adventure → adventurous, caution → cautious, courage → courageous,
    danger → dangerous, fame → famous,  fury → furious, glory → glorious,
    grace → gracious, joy → joyous, marvel → marvelous,
    mischief → mischievous,  outrage → outrageous, poison → poisonous,
    prosperity → prosperous, victory → victorious
    (14) Akhiran -y, (-ey digunakan diakhir kata benda berakhiran -y)
      clay → clayey, dust → dusty, fog → foggy, fun → funny,
    ice → icy, juice → juicy, noise → noisy, sand → sandy, silk → silky,
    smoke → smoky, storm → stormy, sun → sunny, thirst → thirsty,
    water → watery, wave → wavy
    (15) Akhiran -some
      fear → fearsome, quarrel → quarrelsome, trouble → troublesome    
    (16) Akhiran -ate
      affection → affectionate, fortune → fortunate, passion → passionate
    (17) Akhiran -ern
      east → eastern, north → northern,  south → southern, west → western
    (18) Akhiran -wide
      city  → citywide, country → countrywide, nation → nationwide,
    world → worldwide
    (19) Akhiran -worthy
      blame → blameworthy, news → newsworthy, praise → praiseworthy,
    road → roadworthy, trust  → trustworthy
  • B.

    AKHIRAN YANG MENGUBAH 'VERBS' MENJADI ADJECTIVES

    Contoh:

    (1) Akhiran -able, -ible
      comfort → comfortable, respond → responsible, sense → sensible,
    solve → solvable,  tolerate → tolerable, work → workable
    (2) Akhiran -ent, -ant
      ignore → ignorant, obey → obedient, please → pleasant,
    resist → resistant, tolerate → tolerant, urge → urgent
    (3) Akhiran -ed
      bore → bored, confuse → confused, interest → interested,
    surprise → surprised      
    (4) Akhiran -ing
      bore → boring, confuse → confusing, interest → interesting,
    surprise → surprising
    (5) Akhiran -ive
      collect → collective, describe → descriptive, sense → sensitive,
    talk → talkative
    (6) Akhiran -(at)ory
      congratulate → congratulatory, explain → explanatory,  inhibit → inhibitory,
    introduce → introductory, regulate → regulatory, respire  → respiratory,
    satisfy → satisfactory
    (7) Akhiran -y
      choose → choosy, haste → hasty, itch → itchy, stick → sticky,
    panic → panicky, pick → picky, run → runny, scare → scary
  • C.

    AKHIRAN YANG MENGUBAH ADVERBS MENJADI ADJECTIVES

    Contoh:

    east- eastward, north- northward

    Dalam British English gunakan ward untuk membentuk adjective dan wards untuk membentuk adverb (ward juga digunakan dalam British English untuk membentuk adverb), sedangkan dalam American English gunakan ward untuk membentuk baik adjective maupun adverb.